ANIMAL MODELS OF PULMONARY INFECTION IN THE COMPROMISED HOST: Potential Usefulness for Studying Health Effects of Inhaled Particles

REFERENCES

• Ada, G. L., and Jones, P. D. 1986. The immune response to influenza infection. Curr. Topics Microbiol. Immunol. 128:1–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adalis, D., Gardner, D. E., Miller, F. J., and Coffin, D. L. 1977. Toxic effects of cadmium on ciliary activity using a tracheal ring model system. Environ. Res. 13:111–120.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Adkins, B., Jr., Luginbuhl, G. H., Miller, F. J., and Gardner, D. E. 1980. Increased pulmonary suscep-tibility to streptococcal infection following inhalation of manganese oxide. Environ. Res. 23: 110–120.
   Google Scholar
• Agricola, G. 1912. De Re Metallica, trans. H. C. Hoover and L. Hoover. The Mining Magazine, London. 12:17–21.
   Google Scholar
• Akaike, T., Maeda, H., Maruo, K., Sakata, Y., and Sato, K. 1994. Potentiation of infectivity and patho-genesis of influenza A virus by a house dust mite protease. J. Infect. Dis. 170:1023–1026.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Allison, A. C., and Hart, D. A. P. 1968. Potentiation by silica of the growth of mycobacterium tuber-culosis in macrophage cultures. Br.]. Exp. PathoL 49:465–476.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnalich, F., Lahoz, C., Picazo, M. L., Monereo, A., Arribas, J. R., Martinez-Ara, A. J., and Vazquez, J. J. 1989. Polyarteritis nodosa and necrotizing glomerulonephritis associated with long-standing silicosis. Nephron 51:544–547.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aveyard, R., and Clint, J. H. 1996. Particle wettability and line tension./ Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans. 92:85–89.
   Google Scholar
• Azizi, B. H. 0., Zulkifli, H. I., and Kasim, M. S. 1995. Protective and risk factors for acute respiratory infections in hospitalized urban Malaysian children: A case-control study. Southeast Asian J. Tropic. Med. Public Health 26:280–285.
   Google Scholar
• Azoulay-Dupuis, E., Bedos, J. P., Vallee, E., Hardy, D. J., Swanson, R. N., and Pocidalo, J. J. 1991. Antipneumccoccal activity of ciprofloxacin, olfoxacin, and temafloxacin in an experimental mouse pneumonia model at various stages of disease./ Infect. Dis. 163: 319–324.
   Google Scholar
• Balmes, J., Cullen, M. R., and Gee, J. B. 1981. What infections occur in patients with occupational lung disease? Clin. Chest Med. 2:111–120.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balmes, J. R., and Hawkins, J. G. 1987. Pulmonary cryptococcosis. Semin. Respir. Med. 9:180-186. Barnes, P. F., Bloch, A. B., Davidson, P. T., and Snider, D. E., Jr. 1991. Tuberculosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N. Engl.]. Med. 324:1644–1650.
   Google Scholar
• Bartlett, M. S., Queener, S. F., Durkin, M. M., Shaw, M. M., and Smith, J. W. 1991. Inoculated mouse model of Pneumocystis carinii infection. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 15:129–134.
   Google Scholar
• Bates, D. V. 1992. Health indices of the adverse effects of air pollution: The question of coherence. Environ. Res. 59:336–349.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates, D. V. 1995. The effects of air pollution on children. Environ. Health Perspect. 103\(suppl. 6): 49–53.
   Google Scholar
• Beau lac, C., Clement-Major, S., Hawari, J., and Lagace, J. 1996. Eradication of mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa with fluid liposome-encapsulated tobramycin in an animal model of chronic pul-monary infection. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40:665–669.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bedrossian, C. W., Greenberg, S. D., Singer, D. B., Hansen, J. J., and Rosenberg, H. S. 1976. The lung in cystic fibrosis. A quantitative study including prevalence of pathologic findings among different age groups. Hum. Pathol. 7:195–204.
   Google Scholar
• Begin, R., Possmayer, F., Ormseth, M. A., Martel, M., Cantin, A., and Masse, S. 1989. Effect of alu-minum inhalation on alveolar phospholipid profiles in experimental silicosis. Lung 167:107–115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bender, B. S., and Small, P. A., Jr. 1992. Influenza: pathogenesis and host defense. Semin. Respir. Infect. 7: 38–45.
   Google Scholar
• Bender, B. S., Taylor, S. F., Zander, D. S., and Cottey, R. 1995. Pulmonary immune response of young and aged mice after influenza challenge.]. Lab. Clin. Med. 126:169–177.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Betts, R. F. 1995. Influenza virus. In Principles and practice of infectious diseases, eds. G. L. Mandell, J. E. Bennett, and R. Dolin, 4th ed., pp. 1546–1567. New York: Churchill Livingstone.
   Google Scholar
• Bissetti, A. 1989. Pulmonary surfactant and respiratory infections. Respiration 55(suppl. 1):45-48. Bobak, M., and Leon, D. A. 1992. Air pollution and infant mortality in the Czech Republic, 1986-88. Lancet340:1010–1014.
   Google Scholar
• Boucher, J. C., Tu, H., Mudd, M. H., and Deretic, V. 1997. Mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cys-tic fibrosis: Characterization of muc mutations in clinical isolates and analysis of clearance in a mouse model of respiratory infection. Infect. Immun. 65:3838–3846.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boyd, R. L., Ramphal, R., Rice, R., and Mangos, J. A. 1983. Chronic colonization of rat airways with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Infect. Immun. 39:1403–1410.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brogden, K. A., De Lucca, A. J., Bland, J., and Elliott, S. 1996. Isolation of an ovine pulmonary sur-factant-associated anionic bactericidal for Pasteurella haemolytica. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:412–416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brun-Pascaud, M., Chau, F., Garry, L., Jacobus, D., Derouin, F., and Girard, P.-M. 1996. Combina-tion of P5-15, piroprim, or pyrimethamine with dapsone in prophylaxis of Toxoplasma gondii and Pneumocystis carin fi dual infection in a rat model. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40: 2067-2070.
   Google Scholar
• Buraphacheep, W., and Sullender, W. M. 1997. The guinea pig as a model for the study of maternal immunization against respiratory syncytial virus infections in infancy.]. Infect. Dis. 175:935–938.
   Google Scholar
• Burnett, R. T., Cakmak, S., Brook, J. R., and Krewski, D. 1997. The role of particulate size and chem-istry in the association between summertime ambient air pollution and hospitalization for car-diorespiratory diseases. Environ. Health Perspect. 105:614–620.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byers, P. D., and King, E. J. 1961. Experimental infective pneumoconiosis with Mycobacterium tuber- culosis (var. Muris) and haematite by inhalation and by injection.]. Pathol. Bacter. 81:123-134. Byrd, L. G., and Prince, G. A. 1997. Animal models of respiratory syncytial virus infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 25:1363–1368.
   Google Scholar
• Cantin, A. M., North, S. L., Hubbard, R. C., and Crystal, R. G. 1978. Normal alveolar epithelial lining fluid contains high levels of glutathione. J. AppL PhysioL 63:152–157.
   Google Scholar
• Cash, H. A., Woods, D. E., McCullough, B., Johanson, W. G., and Bass, J. A. 1979. A rat model of chronic respiratory infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 119:453–459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casillas, A. M., and Nel, A. E. 1997. An update on the immunopathogenesis of asthma as an inflammatory disease enhanced by environmental pollutants. Allergy Asthma Proc. 18:227-233. Chaumard, C., Forestier, F., and Quero, A. M. 1991. Influence of inhaled cadmium on the immune response to influenza virus. Arch. Environ. Health 46:50–56.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, C. C., Miller, P. D., Amdur, M. 0., and Gordon, T. 1992. Airway hyperresponsiveness in guinea pigs exposed to acid-coated ultrafine particles.]. Toxicol. Environ. Health 35:165-174. Chuck, S. L., and Sande, M. A. 1989. Infections with Cryptococcus neoformans in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N. Engl.]. Med. 321: 794–799.
   Google Scholar
• Coffin, D. L., and Gardner, D. E. 1972. Interaction of biological agents and chemical air pollutants. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 15:219–234.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Collins, J. J., Kasap, H. S., and Holland, W. W. 1971. Environmental factors in child mortality in England and Wales. Am.]. EpidemioL 93:10–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conn, C. A., McClellan, J. L., Maassab, H. F., Smitka, C. W., Majde, J. A., Dieffenbach, C. W., and Kluger, M. J. 1995. Cytokines and the acute phase response to influenza virus in mice. Am. J. PhysioL 268:R78–R84.
   Google Scholar
• Cowie, R. L. 1989. The five ages of pulmonary tuberculosis and the South African goldminer. S. Afr. Med.] 76:566–567.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cowie, R. L. 1994. The epidemiology of tuberculosis in gold miners with silicosis. Am.]. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 150:1460–1462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craighead, J. E., Kleinerman, J., Abraham, J. L., Gibbs, A. R., Green, F. H. Y., Harley, R. A., Ruttner, J. R., Vallyathan, V., and Juliano, E. B. 1988. Diseases associated with exposure to silica and non-fibrous silicate minerals. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 112:673–720.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cross, C., Halliwell, B., and Allen, A. 1984. Antioxidant protection: A function of tracheobronchial and gastrointestinal mucus. Lancet 1:1328–1329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crouch, E., Persson, A., Chang, D., and Parghi, D. 1991. Surfactant protein D. Increased accumula-tion in silica-induced pulmonary lipoproteinosis. Am.]. Pathol. 139(4):765–766.
   Google Scholar
• Curti, P. C., and Genghini, M. 1985. Role of surfactant in clearance of powders from the lung and possible preventive effect of ambroxol against pneumoconiosis including silicosis. Respiration 46:143–151.
   Google Scholar
• Curtis, J. L., Huffnagle, G. B., Chen, G.-H., Warnock, M. L., Gyetko, M. R., McDonald, R. A., Scott, P. J., and Toews, G. B. 1994. Experimental murine pulmonary cryptococcosis: Differences in pulmonary inflammation and lymphocyte recruitment induced by two encapsulated strains of Cryptococcus neoformans. J. Lab. Invest. 71: 113–126.
   Google Scholar
• Davis, G. S. 1986. The pathogenesis of silicosis. Chest 89:166S–169S.
   Google Scholar
• Davis, W. B., and Pacht, E. R. 1997. Extracellular antioxidant defenses. In The lung: Scientific founda-tions, eds. R. G. Crystal, J. B. West, P. J. Barnes, and E. R. Weibel, 2nd ed., pp. 2271–2278. Phila-delphia: Lippincott-Raven.
   Google Scholar
• Dethloff, L. A., Gilmore, L. B., Brody, A. R., and Hook, G. E. R. 1986. Induction of intra- and extra-cellular phospholipids in the lungs of rats exposed to silica. Biochem.J. 233:111–118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diamond, R. D. 1990. Cryptococcus neoformans. In Principles and practice of infectious diseases, eds. G. L. Mandell, R. G. Douglas, Jr., and J. E. Bennett, 3rd ed., pp. 1980–1989. New York: Churchill Livingston.
   Google Scholar
• Dolin, P. J., Raviglione, M. C., and Kochi, A. 1994. Global tuberculosis incidence and mortality dur-ing 1990-2000. Bull. WHO 72:213–220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dolin, R. 1987. Influenza. In Harrison's principles of internal medicine, eds. E. Braunwald, K. J. Isselbacher, R. G. Petersdorf, J. D. Wilson, J. B. Martin, and A. S. Fauci, 11th ed., pp. 672–681. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Douglas, A. W. B., and Waller, R. E. 1966. Air pollution and respiratory infection in children. Br.]. Prevent. Soc. Med. 20:1–8.
   Google Scholar
• Douglas, R. G., Jr., and Edelson, P. J. 1988. Respiratory viral infections. In Pulmonary diseases and disorders, ed. Alfred P. Fishman, 2nd ed., pp. 1583–1596. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Dowd, G. R. 1935. A bacteriological study of attenuated (R1) tubercle bacilli recovered from silicotic and normal guinea-pigs. Am. Rev. Tuberc. Pulmon. Dis. 32:62–69.
   Google Scholar
• Ebina, T., Takahashi, Y., and Hasuike, T. 1960. Effects of quartz powder on tubercle bacilli and phagocytes. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 82:516–527.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ehrlich, R., and Henry, M. C. 1968. Chronic toxicity of nitrogen dioxide. I. Effect on resistance to bacterial pneumonia. Arch. Environ. Health 17:860–865.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehrlich, R., Findlay, J. C., Fenters, J. D., and Gardner, D. E. 1977. Health effects of short-term inhala-tion of nitrogen dioxide and ozone mixtures. Environ. Res. 4:223–231.
   Google Scholar
• Fagon, J. Y., and Chastre, J. 1996. Severe exacerbations of COPD patients: The role of pulmonary infections. Semin. Respir. Infect. 11:109–118.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Feldman, C., Munro, N. C., Jeffery, P. K., Mitchell, P. W., Boulnois, G. J., Guerreiro, D., Rohde, J. A. L., Todd, H. C., Cole, P. J., and Wilson, R. 1991. Pneumolysin induces the salient histologic features of pneumococcal infection in the rat lung in vivo. Am.]. Respir. Cell. MoL Biol. 5:416–423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• File, T. M., and Tan, J. S. 1997. Incidence, etiologic pathogens, and diagnostic testing of community-acquired pneumonia. Curr. Opin. Pulmon. Med. 3:89–97.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Finley, T. N., and Ladman, A. J. 1972. Low yield of pulmonary surfactant in cigarette smokers. N. EngL J. Med. 286(5):223–227.
   Google Scholar
• Fonseca, W., Kirkwook, B. R., Victoria, C. G., Fuchs, S. R., Flores, J. A., and Misago, C. 1996. Risk factors for childhood pneumonia among the urban poor in Fortaleza, Brazil: A case-control study. Bull WHO 74:199–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foy, H. M., Cooney, M. K., Maletzky, A. J., and Grayston, J. T. 1973. Incidence and etiology of pneu-monia, croup and bronchiolitis in preschool children belonging to a prepaid medical care group over a four-year period. Am.]. EpidemioL 97:80–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Francis, N., and Hasleton, P. S. 1996. The pathology of the lung in human immunodeficiency virus infection and AIDS. In Spencer's pathology of the lung, ed. P. S. Hasleton, 5th ed., pp. 115–138. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Frenkel, J. K., Good, J. T., and Schultz, J. A. 1966. Latent pneumocystis infection of rats, relapse, and chemotherapy. Lab. Invest. 15:1559–1577.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner, D. E. 1982a. Effects of gases and airborne particles on lung infections. In Air pollution-Physiological effects, eds. J. J. McGrath and C. D. Barnes, pp. 47-79. New York: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gardner, D. E. 1982b. Use of experimental airborne infections for monitoring altered host defenses. Environ. Health Perspect. 43:99–107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner, D. E., Miller, F. J., Illing, J. W., and Kirtz, J. M. 1977. Alterations in bacterial defense mech-anisms of the lung induced by inhalation of cadmium. Bull. Europ. PhysiopathoL Respir. 13: 157–174.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gardner, L. U., and Cummings, D. E. 1931. Studies on experimental pneumoconiosis. VI. Inhalation of asbestos dust: Its effect upon primary tuberculous infection.]. Ind. Hyg. 13:65–80.
   Google Scholar
• Gardner, L. U. 1934. Inhaled silica and its effect on normal and tuberculous lungs. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 103:743–744.
   Google Scholar
• Gardner, L. U. 1920–1921. Studies on the relation of mineral dusts to tuberculosis: I. The relatively early lesions in experimental pneumoconiosis produced by granite inhalation and their influ-ence on pulmonary tuberculosis. Am. Rev. Tuberc. Pulmon. Dis. 4: 734–741.
   Google Scholar
• Gardner, L. U. 1923. Studies on the relation of mineral dusts to tuberculosis. III. The relatively early lesions in experimental pneumoconiosis produced by carborundum inhalation and their influ-ence on pulmonary tuberculosis. Am. Rev. Tuberc. Pulmon. Dis. 7:344–357.
   Google Scholar
• Gardner, L. U. 1924–1925. Tuberculous infection and tuberculosis as modified by experimental pneumoconiosis. Tuberc/e6:336–343.
   Google Scholar
• Gardner, L. U. 1929. Studies on experimental pneumoconiosis: Reactivation of healing primary tubercles in lung by inhalation of quartz, granite and carborundum dust. Am. Rev. Tuberc. Pulmon. Dis. 20:833–875.
   Google Scholar
• Gehr, P., Geiser, M., Im Hof, V., Schürch, S., Waber, U., and Baumann, M. 1993. Surfactant and inhaled particles in the conducting airways: structural, stereological and biophysical aspects. Microsc. Res. Tech. 26:423–436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gehr, P., Green, F. H. Y., Geiser, M., Im Hof, V., Lee, M. M., and Schürch, S. 1996. Airway surfac-tant, a primary defense barrier: Mechanical and immunological aspects.]. Aerosol Med. 9(2): 163–181.
   Google Scholar
• Gernez-Rieux, C., Tacquet, A., Devulder, G., Voisen, C., Tonnel, A., and Aerts, C. 1972. Experi-mental study of interactions between pneumoconiosis and mycobacterial infections. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 200:106–127.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gilmour, M. I., and Selgrade, M. K. 1993. A comparison of the pulmonary defenses against strepto-coccal infection in rats and mice following 03 exposure: Differences in disease susceptibility and neutrophil recruitment. ToxicoL App/. Pharmacol. 123(2):211–128.
   Google Scholar
• Gilmour, M. I., Park, P., Doerfler, D., and Selgrade, M. K. 1993a. Factors that influence the suppression of pulmonary antibacterial defenses in mice exposed to ozone. Exp. Lung Res. 19(3):299–314.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilmour, M. I., Park, P., and Selgrade, M. K. 1993b. Ozone-enhanced pulmonary infection with Streptococcus zooepidemicus in mice. The role of alveolar macrophage function and capsular virulence factors. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 147(3):753–760.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gilmour, M. I., Park, P., and Selgrade, M. K. 1993c. Ozone-enhanced pulmonary infection with Streptococcus zooepidemicus in mice: The role of alveolar macrophage function and capsular virulence factors. Government Reports Announcements & Index(GRA&I) issue 23.
   Google Scholar
• Ginesu, F., and Pirina, P. 1995. Etiology and risk factors of adult pneumonia.]. Chemother. 7:277–285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldman, M. F., Anderson, G. M., Stozenberg, E. D., Kari, U. P., Zasloff, M., and Wilson, J. M. 1997. Human 13-defensin-1 is a salt-sensitive antibiotic in lung that is inactivated in cystic fibrosis. Cell 88:553–560.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Good, R. C. 1968. Simian tuberculosis; Immunologic aspects. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 154:200.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Good, R. C. 1984. Diseases in nonhuman primates. In The mycobacteria: A sourcebook, eds. G. P. Kubica and L. G. Wayne, pp. 903-921. New York: Dekker.
   Google Scholar
• Goodwin, R. A., and Des Prez, R. M. 1983. Apical localization of pulmonary tuberculosis, chronic pulmonary histoplasmosis and progressive massive fibrosis of the lung. Chest 83:801-805. Gordon, D. 1954. Dust and history. Med.]. Aust. 2:161–166.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Graham, B. S. 1995. Pathogenesis of respiratory syncytial virus vaccine-augmented pathology. Am.]. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 152:S63–S66.
   Google Scholar
• Graham, W. G. 1992. Silicosis. Clin. Chest Med. 13:253–267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, F. H. Y., Schürch, S., De Sanctis, G. T., Wallace, J. A., Cheng, S., and Prior, M. 1991. Effects of hydrogen sulfide exposure on surface properties of lung surfactant.]. App/. Physiol. 70: 1943–1949.
   Google Scholar
• Green, F. H. Y., Lee, M. M., Roth, S. H., Karkhanis, A., Schürch, S., Schürch, D., Bjarnason, S. G., Vincent, R., and Gehr, P. 1995. Effects of solid and liquid acid particles on airway mucus. J. Aerosol Med. 8: 111.
   Google Scholar
• Greenland, S., and Morganstern, H. 1989. Ecological bias, confounding, and effect modification. Int. J. Epidemiol. 18:269–274.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross, P., Westrick, M. L., and McNerney, J. M. 1959. Experimental tuberculopneumoconiosis. Arch. Ind. Health 19:320–334.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gyetko, M. R., Chen, G.-H., McDonald, R. A., Goodman, R., Huffnagle, G. B., Wilkinson, C. C., Fuller, J. A., and Toews, G. B. 1996. Urokinase is required for the pulmonary inflammatory response to Cryptococcus neoformans. A murine transgenic model.]. Clin. Invest. 97: 1818–1826.
   Google Scholar
• Haagsman, H. P., and van Golde, L. M. G. 1985. Lung surfactant and pulmonary toxicology. Lung 163:275–303.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hahon, N., Booth, J. A., Green, F., and Lewis, T. R. 1985. Influenza virus infection in mice after exposure to coal dust and diesel engine emissions. Environ. Res. 37:44–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harmsen, A., and Stankiewicz, M. 1990. Requirement for CD4 cells in resistance to Pneumocystis carinff pneumonia in mice.]. Exp. Med. 172:937–945.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Haustein, U. F., Ziegler, V., Herrmann, K., Mahlhorn, J., and Schmidt, C. 1990. Silica-induced scle-roderma. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 22:444–448.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heiskanen-Kosma, T., Korppi, M., Jokinen, C., and Heinonen, K. 1997. Risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia in children: a population-based case-control study. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 29:281–285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hennet, T., Zilterner, H. J., Frei, K., and Peterhans, E. 1992. A kinetic study of immune mediators in the lungs of mice infected with influenza A virus.]. Immunol. 149:932–939.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heppleston, A. G., Wright, N. A., and Stewart, J. A. 1970. Experimental alveolar lipo-proteinosis fol-lowing the inhalation of silica.]. Pathol. 101:293–307.
   Google Scholar
• Hermann, G., Tovar, C. A., Beck, F. M., Allen, C., and Sheridan, J. F. 1993. Restraint stress differen-tially affects the pathogenesis of an experimental influenza viral infection in three inbred strains of mice.]. NeuroimmunoL 47:83–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernandez-Pardo, R., Orozcoe, H. Sampieri, A., Pavon, L., Velasquillo, C., Larriva-Sahd, J., Alcocer, J. M., and Madrid, M. V. 1996. Correlation between kinetics of Th1/Th2 cells and pathology in a murine model of experimental pulmonary tuberculosis. Immunology 89:26–33.
   Google Scholar
• Hill, A. B. 1965. The environment and disease: Association or causation? Proc. R. Soc. Med. 58:295–300.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopkins, C. C. 1988. Community-acquired pneumonia. In Pulmonary diseases and disorders, ed. A. P. Fishman,2nd ed., vol. II, pp. 1535–1542. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Houston, M. S., Silverstein, M. D., and Suman, V. J. 1995. Community-acquired lower respiratory tract infection in the elderly: a community-based study of incidence and outcome.]. Am. Board Fam. Pract. 8:347–356.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Huffnagle, G. B., Yates, J. L., and Lipscomb, M. F. 1991a. Immunity to a pulmonary Cryptococcus neoformans infection requires both CD4' and CD8* T cells.]. Exp. Med. 173:793–800.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huffnagle, G. B., Yates, J. L., and Lipscomb, M. F. 1991b. T cell-mediated immunity in the lung: A Cryptococcus neoformans pulmonary infection model using SCID and athymic nude mice. Infect. Immun. 59:1423–1433.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, W. T., McNabb, P. C., and Makres, T. D. 1974. Efficacy of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxa-zole in the prevention and treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonitis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 5:289–293.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, R. M. 1990. Molecular, pharmacologic and clinical aspects of oxygen-induced lung injury. Clin. Chest Med. 11:73–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jakab, G. J. 1993. The toxicologic interactions resulting from inhalation of carbon black and acrolein on pulmonary antibacterial and antiviral defenses. Toxicol. AppL Pharmacol. 121:167–175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, B. P., Furney, S. K., Jessen M. T., and Orme, I. M. 1996. Low-dose aerosol infection model for testing drugs for efficacy against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40: 2809–2812.
   Google Scholar
• Kitazawa, H., Sato, A., and lwata, M. 1997. A study of bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue in a rat model of chronic pulmonary infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J. Jpn. Assoc. Infect. Dis. 71:214–221.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Klein, M. S., Conn, C. A., and Kluger, M. J. 1992. Behavioral thermoregulation in mice inoculated with influenza virus. Physiol. Behav. 52:1133–1139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleinbaum, D. G., Kupper, L. L., and Morgenstern, H. 1982. Epidemiologic research: Principles and quantitative methods. Belmont, CA: Lifetime Learning Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Klockars, M., Koskela, R. S., Jarvinen, E., Kolari, P. J., and Rossi, A. 1987. Silica exposure and rheumatoid arthritis: A follow up study of granite workers 1940-1981. Br. Med. J. 294:997–1000.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knox, R. B., Suphioglu, C., Taylor, P., Desai, R., Watson, H. C., Peng, J. L., and Bursill, L. A. 1997. Major grass pollen allergen Lol p 1 binds to diesel exhaust particles: Implications for asthma and air pollution. Clin. Exp. Allergy 27:246–251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kobzik, L., and Schoen, F. J. 1994. The lung. In Pathologic basis of disease, eds. R. S. Cotran, V. Kumar, and S. L. Robbins, 5th ed., pp. 673–734. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.
   Google Scholar
• Koren, H. S., and Becker S. 1992. Antimicrobial defense mechanisms. In Comprehensive treatise on pulmonary toxicology: Comparative biology of the normal lung, ed. R. A. Parent, vol. 1, pp. 747–770. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lapin, C. D., Hiatt, P. W., Langston, C., Mason, E., and Piedra, P. T. 1993. A lamb model for human respiratory syncytial virus infection. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 15:151–156.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lebrec, H., and Burleson, G. R. 1994. Influenza virus host resistance models in mice and rats: Utilization for immune function assessment and immunotoxicology. Toxicologist91:179–188.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, M. M., Schürch, S., Roth, S., Jiang, X., Cheng, S., Bjarnason, S., and Green, F. H. Y. 1995. Effects of acid aerosol exposure on the surface properties of airway mucus. Exp. Lung Res. 21: 835–851.
   Google Scholar
• Li, D. 1996. Drop size dependence of contact angles and line tensions of solid-liquid systems. Colloids Surfact. 116:1–23.
   Google Scholar
• Lipfert, F. W., and Wyzga, R. E. 1992. Observational studies of air pollution health effects: Are the temporal patterns consistent? 9th World Clean Air Conf., paper no. IU-21A.09, September, Montreal, Canada.
   Google Scholar
• Liu, J., Keane, M. J., Ong, T., and Wallace, W. E. 1994. In vitro genotoxicity studies of chrysotile asbestos fibers dispersed in simulated pulmonary surfactant. Mutat. Res. 320:253–259.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liu, Y. C., Tomashefski, J., McMahon, J. T., and Petrelli, M. 1991. Mineral associated hepatic injury. A report of seven cases with x-ray microanalysis. Hum. PathoL 22:1120–1127.
   Google Scholar
• Loosli, C. G. 1949. The pathogenesis and pathology of experimental air-borne influenza virus A infections in mice./ Infect. Dis. 84:153–168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maciver, I., Silverman, S. H., Brown, M. R. W., and O'Reilly, T. 1991. Rat model of chronic lung infections caused by nontypab le Haemophilus influenzae. J. Med. MicrobioL 35:139–147.
   Google Scholar
• Marston, B. J., Plouffe, J. F., File, T. M., Jr., Hackman, B. A., Salstrom, S. J., Lipman, G. B., Kolczak, M. S., and Breiman, R. F. 1997. Incidence of community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospi-talization. Arch. Intern. Med. 157: 1709–1718.
   Google Scholar
• Martling, C. R., and Lundberg, J. M. 1988. Capsaicin sensitive afferents contribute to acute airway edema following tracheal instillation of hydrochloric acid or gastric juice in the rat. Anesthesiology 68:350–356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matalon, S., Holm, B. A., Baker, R. R., Whitfield, M. K., and Freeman, B. A. 1990. Characterization of antioxidant activities of pulmonary surfactant mixtures. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1035:121–127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matalon, S., DeMarco, V., Haddad, I. Y., Myles, C., Skimming, J. W., Schürch, S., Cheng, S., and Cassin, S. 1996. Inhaled nitric oxide injures the pulmonary surfactant system of lambs in vivo. Am.]. PhysioL (Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 14)270:L2724280.
   Google Scholar
• Matulionis, D. H., Kimmel, E., and Diamond, L. 1985. Morphologic and physiologic response of lungs to steroid and cigarette smoke: an animal model. Environ. Res. 36(2):298–313.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McKinsey, D. S., and Bisno, A. L. 1988. Pneumonias caused by gram-positive bacteria. In Pulmonary diseases and disorders, ed. A. P. Fishman, 2nd ed., vol. 2, pp. 1477–1490. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• McWilliam, A. S., Nelson, D., Thomas, J. A., and Holt, P. G. 1994. Rapid dendritic cell recruitment is a hallmark of the acute inflammatory response at mucosal surfaces./ Exp. Med. 179:1331–1336.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Merali, S., Chin, K., Grady, R. W., Weissberger L., and Clarkson, A. B. 1995. Response of a rat model of PCP to continuous infusion of deferoxamine. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39: 1442–1444.
   Google Scholar
• Merritt, T. A., Am irkhan ian, J. D., Helbock, H., Halliwell, B., and Cross, C. E. 1993. Reduction of the surface-tension-lowering ability of surfactant after exposure to hypochlorous acid. Biochem. J. 295:19–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, D., and Bondurant, S. 1962. Effects of cigarette smoke on the surface characteristics of lung extracts. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 85:692–696.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, F. J., Graham, J. A., Raub, J. A., Illing, J. W., Ménache, M.G., House, D. E., and Gardner, D. E. 1987. Evaluating the toxicity of urban patterns of oxidant gases. It. Effects in mice from chronic exposure to nitrogen dioxide.]. ToxicoL Environ. Health 21:99–112.
   Google Scholar
• Miyazaki, S., Nunoya, T., Matsumoto, T., Tateda, K., and Yamagushi, K. 1997. New murine model of bronchopneumonia due to cell-bound Haemophilus influenzae.J. Infect. Dis. 175:205-209. Mody, C. H., and Warren, P. W. 1999. Host defense to pulmonary mycosis. Can.]. Infect. Dis. 10(2): 147–155.
   Google Scholar
• Moolgavkar, S. H., Luebeck, E. G., and Anderson, E. L. 1997. Air pollution and hospital admissions for respiratory causes in Minneapolis-St. Paul and Birmingham. Epidemiology 8:364–370.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muller, B., Barth, P., and von Wichert, P. 1992. Structural and functional impairment of surfactant protein A after exposure to nitrogen dioxide in rats. Am.]. Physiol. (Lung Cell MoL Physiol. 7) 263:L1774184.
   Google Scholar
• National Center for Health Statistics. 1993. Vital statistics of the United States, 1989, Vol. It, Mortality, part A. Washington DC: Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Human and Health Services publication (PHS) 93–1101.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, D. J., McMenamin, C., McWilliam, A. S., Grenan, M., and Holt, P. G. 1994. Development of the airway intraepithelial dendritic cell network in the rat from class 11 major histocompatibility (1a)-negative precursors: Differential regulation of la expression at different levels of the respira-tory tract.]. Exp. Med. 179:203–212.
   Google Scholar
• Nieman, G. F., Clark, W. R., Jr., Wax, S. D., and Webb, W. R. 1980. The effect of smoke inhalation on pulmonary surfactant. Ann. Surg. 191: 171–181.
   Google Scholar
• Nungester, W. J., and Jourdonais, L. F. 1936. Mucin as an aid in the experimental production of lobar pneumonia.]. Infect. Dis. 59:258–265.
   Google Scholar
• Oberdörster, G., Ferin, J., and Lehnert, B. E. 1994. Correlation between particle size, in vivo particle persistence and lung injury. Environ. Health Perspect. 102\(suppl. 5):173–179.
   Google Scholar
• Oosting, R. S., van lwaarden. J. F., van Bree, L., Verhoef, J., van Golde, L. M. G., and Haagsman, H. 1992. Exposure of surfactant protein A to ozone in vitro and in vivo impairs its interactions with alveolar cells. Am.]. Physiol. (Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 6) 262:L63468.
   Google Scholar
• Openshaw, P. J. M. 1995. Immunity and immunopathology to respiratory syncytial virus. The mouse model. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 152:S59–S62.
   Google Scholar
• Ordway, D. J., Sonnenberg, M. G., Donahue, S. A., Belisle, J. T., and Orme, I. M. 1995. Drug-resis-tant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis exhibit a range of virulence for mice. Infect. Immun. 63:741–743.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• O'Reilly, T. 1995. Relevance of animal models for chronic bacterial airway infections in humans. Am.]. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 151:2102–2108.
   Google Scholar
• Orme, I. M. 1988. A mouse model of the recrudescence of latent tuberculosis in the elderly. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 137:716–718.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pankhurst, C. L., and Phippott-Howard, H. J. 1996. The environmental risk factors associated with medical and dental equipment in transmission of Burkholderia(Pseudomonas) cepacia in cystic fibrosis patients.]. Hosp. Infect. 32: 249–255.
   Google Scholar
• Parkes, W. R. 1982. Diseases due to free silica. In Occupational lung disorders, pp. 134–232. London: Butterworth.
   Google Scholar
• Peatfield, A. C., and Richardson, P. S. 1983. The action of dust in the airways on secretion into the trachea of the cat./ Physiol. 342:327–334.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pennington, J. E. 1985. Animal models of pneumonia for evaluation of antimicrobial therapy.]. Antimicrob. Chemother. 16:1–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pennington, J. E., and Ehrie, M. G. 1978. Pathogenesis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia dur-ing immunosuppression. J. Infect. Dis. 137:764–774.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pennington, J. E., Hickey, W. F., Blackwood, L. L., and Arnaut, M. A. 1981. Active immunization with lipopolysaccharide pseudomonas antigen for chronic pseudomonas bronchopneumcnia in guinea pigs./ Clin. Invest. 68:1140–1148.
   Google Scholar
• Pier, G. B., Grout, M., Zaidi, T. S., Olsen, J. C., Johnson, L. G., Yankaskas, J. R., and Goldberg, J. B. 1996. Role of mutant CFTR in hypersusceptibility of cystic fibrosis patients to lung infections. Science271:64–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pier, G. B., Grout, M., and Zaidi, T. S. 1997. Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator is an epithelial cell receptor for clearance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from the lung. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:12088–1293.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pierce, A. K. 1988. Pneumonias caused by gram-negative aerobic organisms. In Pulmonary diseases and disorders, ed. A. P. Fishman, 2nd ed., vol. 2, pp. 1491–1504. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Pison, U., Max, M., Neuendank, A., WeiSach, S., and Pietschmann, S. 1994. Host defense capacities of pulmonary surfactant: evidence for "non-surfactant" functions of the surfactant system. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 24:586–599.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Policard, A., Gernez-Rieux, C., Tacquet, A., Martin, J. C., Devulder, B., and LeBouffant, L. 1967. Influence of pulmonary dust load on the development of experimental infection by Mycobacteria Kansasii. Nature (Lond.) 216:177–178.
   Google Scholar
• Pope, C. A. 1996. Particulate pollution and health: a review of the Utah Valley experience./ Expos. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 6:23–34.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pouthier, D., Duhoux, P., and Van-Damme, B. 1991. Pulmonary silicosis and glomerular nephropa-thy. Apropos of one case. Nephrologie 12:8–11.
   Google Scholar
• Powles, M. A. D., McFadden, D. C., Pittarelli, L. A., and Schmatz, D. M. 1992. Mouse model for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia that uses natural transmission to initiate infection. Infect. Immun. 60:1397–1400.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramphal, R., Cogliano, R. C., Shands, J. W., Jr, and Small, P. A., Jr. 1979. Serum antibody prevents lethal murine influenza pneumonitis but not tracheitis. Infect. Immun. 25: 992–997.
   Google Scholar
• Read, R. C., Roberts, P., Munro, N., Rutman, A., Hastie, A., Shryock, T., Hall, R., McDonald-Gibson, W., Lund, V., and Taylor, G. 1992./ App/. PhysioL 72:2271–2277.
   Google Scholar
• Renegar, K. B. 1992. Influenza virus infections and immunity: A review of human and animal models. Lab. Anim. Sci. 42:222–432.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Renner, R. R., Coccaro, A. P., Heitzman, E. R., Dailey, E. T., and Markarian, B. 1972. Pseudomonas pneumonia:A prototype of hospital-based infection. Radiology105:555–562.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reynolds, H. Y. 1985. Phagocytic defense in the lung. Antibiot. Chemother. 36:74–87.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rhoades, E. R., Frank, A. A., and Orme, I. M. 1997. Progression of chronic pulmonary tuberculosis in mice aerogenically infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 78:57–66.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Riquelme, R., Torres, A., El-Ebiary, M., Puig de la Bellacasa, J., Estruch, R., Mensa, J., Fernandez-Sola, J., Hernandez, C., and Rodriguez-Roisin, R. 1996. Community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 154: 1450–1455.
   Google Scholar
• Rosen, M. J. 1995. Respiratory infections in patients with HIV. Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. 1:216-222. Roveri, A., Bruni, R., Baritussio, A., Coassin, M., Benevento, M., Baiorino, M., and Ursini, F. 1989. Antioxidant defenses of rabbit alveolar lining fluid. Respiration 55\(suppl. 1):68–73.
   Google Scholar
• Rubin, R. H. 1988. Pneumonia in the immunocomprcmised host. In Pulmonary diseases and disor-ders, ed. A. P. Fishman, 2nd edition, vol. 2, pp. 1745–1760. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Rubins, J. B., Duane, P. G., Clawson, D., Charboneau, D., Young, J., and Niewoehner, D. E. 1993. Toxicity of pneumolysin to pulmonary alveolar epithelial cells. Infect. Immun. 61:1352–1358.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saladino, R. A., Stack, A. M., Fleisher, G. R., Thompson, C. M., Briles, D. E., Kobzik, L., and Siber, G. R. 1997. Development of a model of low-inoculum Streptococcus pneumoniae intrapul-monary inflection in infant rats. Infect. Immun. 65:4701–4704.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Salathe, M., Guldimann, P., Conner, G. E., and Wanner, A. 1995. Hydrogen peroxide-scavenging properties of sheep airway mucus. Am.]. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 151:1542–1550.
   Google Scholar
• Salinas, M., and Vega, J. 1995. The effect of outdoor air pollution on mortality risk: An ecological study from Santiago, Chile. Rapp. Trimest. Statist. Sanit. Mono/. 48:118–124.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Samet, J. M., and Speizer, F. E. 1993. Assessment of health effects in epidemiologic studies of air pol-lution. Environ. Health Perspect.101\(suppl. 4):149–154.
   Google Scholar
• Samet, J. M., Tager, I. B., and Speizer, F. E. 1983. The relationship between respiratory illness in childhood and chronic air-flow obstruction in adulthood. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 127:508–523.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schepers, G. W. H., Smart, R. H., Smith, C. R., Dworski, M., and Delahant, A. B. 1958. Fatal silicosis with complicating infection by an atypical acid-fast photochromic bacillus. Ind. Med. Surg. 27: 27–36.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schmekel, B., Khan, A. R., Linden, M., and Wollmer, P. 1991. Recoveries of phosphatidylcholine and alveolar macrophages in lung lavage from healthy light smokers. Clin. Physiol. 11:431–438.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schmidt, L. H. 1972. Improving existing methods of control of tuberculosis-A prime challenge to the experimentalist. The John Barnwell Lecture. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 105:183–205.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schofield, D., and Cotran, R. S. 1994. Diseases of infancy and childhood. In Pathologic basis of dis-ease, eds. R. S. Cotran, V. Kumar, and S. L. Robbins, 5th ed., pp. 431–466. Philadelphia:W. B. Saunders.
   Google Scholar
• Schon-Hegrad, M. A., Oliver, J., McMenamin, P. G., and Holt, P. 1991. Studies on the density, dis-tribution and surface phenotype of intraepithelial class II major histocompatibility complex antigen (1a)-bearing dendritic cells (DC) in the conducting airways.]. Exp. Med. 173: 1345–1356.
   Google Scholar
• Schook, L. B., Carrick, L. Jr, and Berk, R. S. 1977. Experimental pulmonary infection of mice by tra-cheal intubation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa: The use of antineoplastic agents to overcome nat-ural resistance. Can.]. Microbiol. 23:823–826.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuyler, M. R., Ziskind, M., and Salvaggio, J. 1977. Cell-mediated immunity in silicosis. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 116:147–151.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schwartz J. 1994a. PM10, ozone, and hospital admissions for the elderly in Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota. Arch. Environ. Health 49:366–374.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz J. 1994b. Air pollution and hospital admissions for the elderly in Detroit, Michigan. Am.]. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 150:648–655.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz, J. 1996. Air pollution and hospital admissions for respiratory disease. Epidemiology 7:20–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selgrade, M. J. K., and Gilmour, M. I. 1994. Effects of gaseous air pollutants on immune responses and susceptibility to infectious and allergic disease. In Immunotoxicology and immunopharma-cology, eds. J. H. Dean, M. I. Luster, A. E. Munson, and I. Kimber, 2nd ed., pp. 395–411. New York: Raven Press.
   Google Scholar
• Selgrade, M. K., Illing, J. W., Starnes, D. M., Stead, A. G., Ménache, M. G., and Stevens, M. A. 1988. Evaluation of effects of ozone exposure on influenza infection in mice using several indicators of susceptibility. Fundam. App/. Toxicol. 11: 169–180.
   Google Scholar
• Selgrade, M. J. K., Starnes, D. M., Illing, J. W., Daniels, M. J., and Graham, J. A. 1989. Effects of phosgene exposure on bacterial, viral, and neoplastic lung disease susceptibility in mice. Inhal. Toxicol. 1:243–259.
   Google Scholar
• Shapiro, S. 1994. Meta-analysis/shmeta-analysis. Am.]. Epidemiol. 140:771–778.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shellito, J. V., Suzura, V. V., Blumenfeld, W., Beck, J. M., Stekger, and Ermak, T. H. 1990. A new model of Pneumocystis carinii infection in mice selectively depleted of helper T lymphocytes.]. Clin. Invest. 85:1686–1693.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sherwood, R. L., Tarkington, B., Lippert, W. E., and Goldstein, E. 1981. Effect of ferrous sulphate aerosols and nitrogen dioxide aerosols on murine pulmonary defense. Arch. Environ. Health 36:130–135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sidman, C. L., and Roths, J. B. 1994. New animal models for Pneumocystis carinii research: immun-odeficient mice. In Pneumocystic carinii pneumonia, ed. P. D. Walzer, pp. 223-235. New York: Marcel Dekker.
   Google Scholar
• Slater, L. N. 1990. A rat model of prolonged pulmonary infection due to nontypable Haemophilus influenzae. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 142:1429–1435.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith, H., and Sweet, C. 1988. Lessons for human influenza from pathogenicity studies with ferrets. Rev. Infect. Dis. 10:56–75.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith, M. R., and Wood, W. B., Jr. 1956. An experimental analysis of the curative action of penicillin in acute bacterial infections. II. The role of phagocytic cells in the process of recovery. J. Exp. Med. 193: 499–507.
   Google Scholar
• Soike, K. F., Rangan, S. R. S., and Gerone, P. J. 1984. Viral disease models in primates. Adv. Vet. ScL Comp. Med. 28:151–199.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Soukup, J., Koren, H. S., and Becker, S. 1993. Ozone effect on respiratory syncytial virus infectivity and cytokine production by human alveolar macrophages. Environ. Res. 60:178–186.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Starke, J. R., Edwards, M. S. Langston, C., and Baker, C. J. 1987. A mouse model of chronic pulmonary infection with Pseudomonasaeruginosa and Pseudomonascepacia. Pediatr. Res. 22:698–702.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stringer, B., and Kobzik, L. 1996. Alveolar macrophage uptake of the environmental particulate tita-nium dioxide: Role of surfactant components. Am.]. Respir. Cell. MoL Biol. 14:155–160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tateda, K., Takashima, K. Hiroyasu, M., Matsumoto, T., Hatori, T., and Yamaguchi, K. 1996. Noncompromised penicillin-resistant pneumococcal pneumonia CBA/J mouse model and com-parative efficacies of antibiotics in this model. Ant imicrob. Agents Chemother. 40:1520–1525.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thomas, G. B., Fenters, J. D., Ehrlick, R., and Gardner, D. E. 1981. Effects of exposure to peroxy-acetyl nitrate on susceptibility to acute and chronic bacterial infection. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 8:559–574.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tillotson, J. R., and Lerner, A. M. 1968. Characteristics of non-bacteremic pseudomonas pneumonia. Ann. Intern. Med. 68:295–307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1996a. Air quality criteria for particulate matter, vol. II, EPA/600/P-95/001aF. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1996b. Air quality criteria for particulate matter, vol. III, EPA/600/P-95/001aF. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1999. Air quality criteria for particulate matter, vol. II, EPA/600/0-99/002a (draft). Washington, DC: U.S. EPA.
   Google Scholar
• Vallyathan V., Green, F. H. Y., Schürch, S., Leonard, S., and Wallace, W. E. 1995. Effect of oxygen radicals on surfactant activity (abstr.). FASEB J. 9(4):A973.
   Google Scholar
• van Golde, L. M. G. 1995. Potential role of surfactant proteins A and D in innate lung defense against pathogens. Biol. Neonate 67\(suppl. 1):2–17.
   Google Scholar
• van lwaarden, J.F., Welmers, B., Verhoef, J., Haagsman, H.P., and van Golde, L. M. G. 1990. Pul-monary surfactant protein A enhances the host-defense mechanism of rat alveolar macrophages. Am.]. Respir. Cell. MoL Biol. 2:91–98.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van lwaarden, J.F., van Strijp, J.A.. G., Ebskamp, M. J. M., Welmers, B., Verhoef, J., and van Golde, L. M. G. 1991. Surfactant protein A is an opsonin in the phagocytosis of herpes simplex virus type 1 by rat alveolar macrophages. Am. J. PhysioL 61:L204–L209.
   Google Scholar
• Wallace, J. A., and Schürch, S. 1988. Line tension of a sessile drop on a fluid-fluid interface modified by a phospholipid monolayer. J. Colloid Interface ScL 124:452–461.
   Google Scholar
• Wallace, W. E., Jr., Headley, L. C., and Weber, K. C. 1975. Dipalmitoyl lecithin surfactant adsorption by kaolin dust in vitro.]. Colloid Interface ScL 51:535–537.
   Google Scholar
• Wallace, W. E., Keane, M. J., Hill, C. A., Xu, J., and Ong, T.-M. 1987. Mutagenicity of diesel exhaust particles and oil shale particles dispersed in lecithin surfactant. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 21: 163–171.
   Google Scholar
• Wallace, W. E., Jr, Keane, M. J., Vallyathan, V., Hathaway, P., Regad, E. D., Castranova, V., and Green, F. H. Y. 1988. Suppression of inhaled particle cytotoxicity by pulmonary surfactant and retoxificaticn by phospholipase: Distinguishing properties of quartz and kaolin. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 32: 291–298.
   Google Scholar
• Walsh, G. P., Tan, E. V., Dela Cruz, E. C., Abalos, R. M., Villahermosa, L. G., Young, L. J., Cellona, R. V., Nazareno, J. B., and Horwitz, M. A. 1996. The Philippine cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fasicularis) provides a new nonhuman primate model of tuberculosis that resembles human dis-ease. Nature Med. 2:430–436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walzer, P. D., Powell, R. D., and Yoneda, K. 1979. Experimental Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in different strains of cortisonized mice. Infect. Immun. 24:939–947.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Walzer, P. D., Runck, J. Steele, P., White, M., Linke, M. J., and Sidman, C. L. 1997. Immunodeficient and immunosuppressed mice as models to test anti-Pneumocystis carinii drugs. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41: 251–258.
   Google Scholar
• Wanner, H. U. 1993. Effects of atmospheric pollution on human health. Experientia 49:754-758. Watkins-Pitchfcrd, W. 1927. The silicosis of the South African gold mines and the changes produced in it by legislative and administrative effort.]. Ind. Hyg. 9:109–139.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, R., Dowling, R. B., and Jackson, A. D. 1996. The biology of bacterial colonization and inva-sion of the respiratory mucosa. Eur. Respir. J. 9:1523–1530.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood, W. B., Jr., and Irons, E. N. 1946. Studies on the mechanism of recovery in pneumococcal pneumonia. II. The effect of sulfonamide therapy upon the pulmonary lesion of experimental pneumonia.]. Exp. Med. 84: 365–375.
   Google Scholar
• Wordley, J., Walters, S., and Ayres, J. G. 1997. Short term variations in hospital admissions and mor-tality and particulate air pollution. Occup. Environ. Med. 54:108–116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright, J. R., and Youmans, D. C. 1993. Pulmonary surfactant protein A stimulates chemotaxis of alveolar macrophage. Am.]. Physiol. 264:L338—L344.
   Google Scholar
• Wyndham, C. H., Bezuidenhout, B. N., Greenacre, M. J., and Sluis-Cremer, G. K. 1986. Mortality of middle aged white South African gold miners. Br.]. Ind. Med. 43: 677–684.
   Google Scholar
• Yager, D., Cloutier, T., Feldman, H., Bastacky, J., Drazen, J. M., and Kamm, R. D. 1994. Airway sur-face liquid thickness as a function of lung volume in small airways of the guinea pig. J. Appl. PhysioL 77:2333–2340.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yetter, R. A., Lehrer, S., Ramphal, R., and Small, P. A., Jr. 1980. Outcome of influenza infection: Effect of site of initial infection and heterotypic immunity. Infect. Immun. 29: 654–662.
   Google Scholar
• Yoshikawa, T. T. 1983. Geriatric infectious diseases. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 31:34–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaidi, S. H., Harrison, C. V., King, E. J., and Mitchison, D. A. 1955a. Experimental infective pneumo-coniosis. II. Coal-mine dust with attenuated tubercle bacilli (BCG) in the lung of immunised guinea-pigs. Br.]. Exp. Pathol. 36:539–544.
   Google Scholar
• Zaidi, S. H., Harrison, C. V., King, E. J., and Mitchison, D. A. 1955b. Experimental infective pneumo-coniosis. III. Coal-mine dust and isoniazid-resistant tubercle bacilli of moderate virulence. Br.]. Exp. PathoL 36:553–559.
   Google Scholar
• Ziskind, M., Jones, R. N., and Weill, H. 1986. Silicosis. The state of the art. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 113:643–665.
   Google Scholar