Wisconsin Card Sorting Test embedded validity indicators developed for adults can be extended to children

References

• Ashendorf, L., O’Bryant, S. E., & McCaffrey, R. J. (2003). Specificity of malingering detection strategies in older adults using the CVLT and WCST. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 17(2), 255–262. doi:10.1076/clin.17.2.255.16502
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Axelrod, B. N., Meyers, J. E., & Davis, J. J. (2014). Finger tapping test performance as a measure of performance validity. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(5), 876–888. doi:10.1080/13854046.2014.907583
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babikian, T., Boone, K. B., Lu, P., & Arnold, G. (2006). Sensitivity and specificity of various digit span scores in the detection of suspect effort. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 20, 145–159. doi:10.1080/13854040590947362
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker, D. A., Connery, A. K., Kirk, J. W., & Kirkwood, M. W. (2014). Embedded performance validity indicators within the California Verbal Learning Test, Children’s Version. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(1), 116–127. doi:10.1080/13854046.2013.858184
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Batt, K., Shores, E. A., & Chekaluk, E. (2008). The effect of distraction on the Word Memory Test and Test of Memory Malingering performance in patients with a severe brain injury. The Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14(6), 1074–1080. doi:10.1017/S135561770808137X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berthelson, L., Mulchan, S. S., Odland, A. P., Miller, L. J., & Mittenberg, W. (2013). False positive diagnosis of malingering due to the use of multiple effort tests. Brain Injury, 27, 909–916. doi:10.3109/02699052.2013.793400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bilder, R. M., Sugar, C. A., & Hellemann, G. S. (2014). Cumulative false positive rates given multiple performance validity tests: Commentary on Davis and Millis (2014) and Larrabee (2014). The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(8), 1212–1223. doi:10.1080/13854046.2014.969774
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blaskewitz, N., Merten, T., & Kathmann, N. (2008). Performance of children on symptom validity tests: TOMM, MSVT, and FIT. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 23(4), 379–391. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2008.01.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boone, K. B. (2009). The need for continuous and comprehensive sampling of effort/response bias during neuropsychological examinations. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(4), 729–741. doi:10.1080/13854040802427803
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boone, K. B. (2013). Clinical practice of forensic neuropsychology. New York, NY: Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Brooks, B. L. (2012). Victoria Symptom Validity Test performance in children and adolescents with neurological disorders. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(8), 858–868. doi:10.1093/arclin/acs087
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks, B. L., & Ploetz, D. M. (2015). Embedded performance validity on the CVLT-C for youth with neurological disorders. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 30, 200–206. doi:10.1093/arclin/acv017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bush, S. S., Ruff, R. M., Troster, A. I., Barth, J. T., Koffler, S. P., Pliskin, N. H., … Silver, C. (2005). Symptom validity assessment: Practice issues and medical necessity (NAN Policy and Planning Committees). Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20, 419–426. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2005.02.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carone, D. A. (2008). Children with moderate/severe brain damage/dysfunction outperform adults with mild-to-no brain damage on the Medical Symptom Validity Test. Brain Injury, 22, 960–971. doi:10.1080/02699050802491297
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, J. J., & Millis, S. R. (2014). Examination of performance validity test failure in relation to number of tests administered. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(2), 199–214. doi:10.1080/13854046.2014.884633
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeRight, J., & Carone, D. A. (2015). Assessment of effort in children: A systematic review. Child Neuropsychology, 21(1), 1–24. doi:10.1080/09297049.2013.864383
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donders, J. (2005). Performance on the Test of Memory Malingering in a mixed pediatric sample. Child Neuropsychology, 11, 221–227. doi:10.1080/09297040490917298
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdodi, L. A., Lichtenstein, J. D., Rai, J. K., & Flaro, L. (2016). Embedded validity indicators in Conners’ CPT-II: Do adult cutoffs work the same way in children? Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 1–9. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/21622965.2016.1198908
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdodi, L. A., Roth, R. M., Kirsch, N. L., Lajiness-O’Neill, R., & Medoff, B. (2014). Aggregating validity indicators embedded in Conners’ CPT-II outperforms individual cutoffs at separating valid from invalid performance in adults with traumatic brain injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(5), 456–466. doi:10.1093/arclin/acu026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdodi, L. A., Tyson, B. T., Abeare, C. A., Lichtenstein, J. D., Pelletier, C. L., Rai., J. K., & Roth, R. M. (2016). The BDAE complex ideational material – A measure of receptive language or performance validity? Psychological Injury and Law, 9, 112–120. doi:10.1007/s12207-016-9254-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant, D. A., & Berg, E. A. (1948). A behavioral analysis of degree of reinforcement and ease of shifting to new responses in a Weigl-type card-sorting problem. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 404–411.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Green, P. (2003). Manual for the Word Memory Test. Edmonton, AB: Green’s.
   Google Scholar
• Green, P. (2004). Manual for Green’s Medical Symptom Validity Test (MSVT). Edmonton, AB: Green’s.
   Google Scholar
• Green, P. (2008). Manual for the Nonverbal Medical Symptom Validity Test. Edmonton, AB: Green’s.
   Google Scholar
• Green, P., & Flaro, L. (2003). Word Memory Test performance in children. Child Neuropsychology, 9, 189–207. doi:10.1076/chin.9.3.189.16460
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greve, K. W., & Bianchini, K. J. (2002). Using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test to detect malingering: An analysis of the specificity of two methods in nonmalingering normal and patient samples. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24, 48–54. doi:10.1076/jcen.24.1.48.968
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greve, K. W., & Bianchini, K. J. (2004). Setting empirical cut-offs on psychometric indicators of negative response bias: A methodological commentary with recommendations. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19, 533–541. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2003.08.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greve, K. W., Bianchini, K. J., Mathias, C. W., Houston, R. J., & Crouch, J. A. (2002). Detecting malingered performance with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A preliminary investigation in traumatic brain injury. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 16, 179–191. doi:10.1076/clin.16.2.179.13241
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greve, K. W., Heinly, M. T., Bianchini, K. J., & Love, J. M. (2009). Malingering detection with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in mild traumatic brain injury. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23, 343–362. doi:10.1080/13854040802054169
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greve, K. W., Ord, J., Curtis, K. L., Bianchini, K. J., & Brennan, A. (2008). Detecting malingering in traumatic brain injury and chronic pain: A comparison of three forced-choice symptom validity tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22(5), 896–918. doi:10.1080/13854040701565208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gligorović, M., & Buha, N. (2013). Conceptual abilities of children with mild intellectual disability: Analysis of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 38(2), 134–140. doi:10.3109/13668250.2013.772956
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunn, D., Batchelor, J., & Jones, M. (2010). Detection of simulated memory impairment in 6- to 11-year-old children. Child Neuropsychology, 16(2), 105–118. doi:10.1080/09297040903352564
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison, A. G., & Armstrong, I. (2014). WISC-IV unusual digit span performance in a sample of adolescents with learning disabilities. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 3, 152–160. doi:10.1080/21622965.2012.753570
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison, A. G., Flaro, L., & Armstrong, I. (2015). Rates of effort test failure in children with ADHD: An exploratory study. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 4(3), 197–210. doi:10.1080/21622965.2013.850581
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heaton, R. K., Chelune, G. J., Talley, J. L., Kay, G. G., & Curtis, G. (1993). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) manual revised and expanded. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
   Google Scholar
• Heilbronner, R. L., Sweet, J. J., Morgan, J. E., Larrabee, G., Millis, S., & Participants, C. (2009). American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology Consensus Conference statement on the neuropsychological assessment of effort, response bias, and malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23, 1093–1129. doi:10.1080/13854040903155063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iverson, G. L. (1998). 21-Item Test research manual. Vancouver, BC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Jodzio, K., & Biechowska, D. (2010). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test as a measure of executive function impairments in stroke patients. Applied Neuropsychology, 17(4), 267–277. doi:10.1080/09084282.2010.525104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King, J. H., Sweet, J. J., Sherer, M., Curtiss, G., & Vanderploeg, R. D. (2002). Validity indicators within the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Application of new and previously researched multivariate procedures in multiple traumatic brain injury samples. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 16(4), 506–523. doi:10.1076/clin.16.4.506.13912
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirkwood, M. W. (2015). Validity testing in child and adolescent assessment: Evaluating exaggeration, feigning, and noncredible effort. New York, NY: Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Kirkwood, M. W., Hargrave, D. D., & Kirk, J. W. (2011). The value of the WISC-IV digit span subtest in detecting noncredible performance during pediatric neuropsychological examinations. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 26, 377–384. doi:10.1093/arclin/acr040
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirkwood, M. W., & Kirk, J. W. (2010). The base rate of suboptimal effort in a pediatric mild TBI sample: Performance on the Medical Symptom Validity Test. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 24(5), 860–872. doi:10.1080/13854040903527287
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larrabee, G. J. (2003). Detecting of malingering using atypical performance patterns on standard neuropsychological tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 17(3), 410–425. doi:10.1076/clin.17.3.410.18089
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larrabee, G. J. (2007). Assessment of malingering. In G. J. Larrabee (Ed.), Forensic neuropsychology: A scientific approach. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Larrabee, G. J. (2008). Aggregation across multiple indicators improves the detection of malingering: Relationship to likelihood ratios. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22, 666–679. doi:10.1080/13854040701494987
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larrabee, G. J. (2014a). False-positive rates associated with the use of multiple performance and symptom validity tests. The Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(4), 364–373. doi:10.1093/arclin/acu019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larrabee, G. J. (2014b). Test validity and performance validity: Considerations in providing a framework for development of an ability-focused neuropsychological test battery. The Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(7), 695–714. doi:10.1093/arclin/acu049
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, R. C., Haut, J. S., Stainbrook, T., & Franzen, M. D. (1995). Preliminary normative data for objective measures to detect malingered neuropsychological deficits in a population of adolescent patients [Abstract]. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 10, 364–365. doi:10.1093/arclin/10.4.364
   Google Scholar
• Miele, A. S., Gunner, J. H., Lynch, J. K., & McCaffrey, R. J. (2012). Are embedded validity indices equivalent to free-standing symptom validity tests? Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(1), 10–22. doi:10.1093/arclin/acr084
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, N. W., Sweet, J. J., Berry, D. T., Bryant, F. B., & Granacher, R. P. (2007). Response validity in forensic neuropsychology: Exploratory factor analytic evidence of distinct cognitive and psychological constructs. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13(3), 440–449. doi:10.1017/S1355617707070373
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ploetz, D. M., Mazur-Mosiewicz, A., Kirkwood, M. W., Sherman, E. M. S., & Brooks, B. L. (2016). Performance on the Test of Memory Malingering in children with neurological conditions. Child Neuropsychology, 22, 133–142. doi:10.1080/09297049.2014.986446
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabin, L. A., Paolillo, E., & Barr, W. B. (2016). Stability in test-usage practices of clinical neuropsychologists in the United States and Canada over a 10-year period: A follow-up survey of INS and NAN members. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 31, 206–230. doi:10.1093/arclin/acw007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Retzlaff, P., Butler, M., & Vanderploeg, R. D. (1992). Neuropsychological battery choice and theoretical orientation: A multivariate analysis. The Journal of Clinical Psychology, 48(5), 666–672. doi:10.1002/(ISSN)1097-4679
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romine, C. B., Lee, D., Wolfe, M. E., Homack, S., George, C., & Riccio, C. A. (2004). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test with children: A meta-analytic study of sensitivity and specificity. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19, 1027–1041. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2003.12.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherman, E. M. S., & Brooks, B. L. (2015). Children and Adolescent Memory Profile (ChAMP) professional manual. Lutz, FL: PAR.
   Google Scholar
• Silk-Eglit, G. M., Stenclik, J. H., Miele, A. S., Lynch, J. K., & McCaffrey, R. J. (2015). Rates of false-positive classification resulting from the analysis of additional embedded performance validity measures. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 22(5), 335–347. doi:10.1080/23279095.2014.938809
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slick, D., Hopp, G., Strauss, E., & Thompson, G. (1997). The Victoria Symptom Validity Test. Odessa, FL: PAR.
   Google Scholar
• Slick, D. J., Sherman, E. M., & Iverson, G. L. (1999). Diagnostic criteria for malingered neurocognitive dysfunction: proposed standards for clinical practice and research. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 13(4), 545–561.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suhr, J. A., & Boyer, D. (1999). Use of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in the detection of malingering in student simulator and patient samples. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Psychology, 21(5), 701–708.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tombaugh, T. (1996). Test of Memory of Malingering (TOMM). North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
   Google Scholar
• Welsh, A. J., Bender, H. A., Whitman, L. A., Vasserman, M., & MacAllister, W. S. (2012). Clinical utility of reliable digit span in assessing effort in children and adolescents with epilepsy. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(7), 735–741. doi:10.1093/arclin/acs063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar