The Neuropathology of HIV/AIDS

References

• An SF, Ciardi A, Giometto B, Scaravilli T, Gray F, Scaravilli F. Investigation on the expression of major histocompatibility complex class II and cytokines and detection of HIV-1 DNA within brains of asymptomatic and symptomatic HIV-1-positive patients. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1996; 91: 494–503
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• An SF, Giometto B, Groves M, Miller RF, Beckett AA, Gray F, et al. Axonal damage revealed by accumulation of beta-APP in HIV-positive individuals without AIDS. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology 1997; 56: 1262–1268
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson E, Zink W, Xiong H, Gendelman HE. HIV-1-associated dementia: A metabolic encephalopathy perpetrated by virus-infected and immune-competent mononuclear phagocytes. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2002; 31(Suppl.2)S43–54
   Google Scholar
• Anthony IC, Crawford DH, Bell JE. B lymphocytes in the normal brain: Contrasts with HIV-associated lymphoid infiltrates and lymphomas. Brain 2003; 126: 1058–1067
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anthony IC, Bell JE. Effects of Advances in Therapy on the Neuropathology of HIV Infection. ACNR 2005; 5: 20–22
   Google Scholar
• Anthony IC, Ramage SN, Carnie FW, Simmonds P, Bell JE. Does drug abuse alter microglial phenotype and cell turnover in the context of advancing HIV infection?. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2005; 31: 325–338
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anthony IC, Ramage SN, Carnie FW, Simmonds P, Bell JE. Accelerated Tau deposition in the brains of individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus-1 before and after the advent of highly active anti-retroviral therapy. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 2006; 111: 529–538
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Auperin I, Mikolt J, Oksenhendler E, Thiebaut JB, Brunet M, Dupont B, et al. Primary central nervous system malignant non-Hodgkin's lymphomas from HIV-infected and non-infected patients: Expression of cellular surface proteins and Epstein-Barr viral markers. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1994; 20: 243–252
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aylward EH, Henderer JD, McArthur JC, Brettschneider PD, Harris GJ, Barta PE, et al. Reduced basal ganglia volume in HIV-1-associated dementia: Results from quantitative neuroimaging. Neurology 1993; 43: 2099–2104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aylward EH, Brettschneider PD, McArthur JC, Harris GJ, Schlaepfer TE, Henderer JD, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging measurement of gray matter volume reductions in HIV dementia. American Journal of Psychiatry 1995; 152: 987–994
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beckerleg S, Telfer M, Hundt GL. The rise of injecting drug use in East Africa: A case study from Kenya. Harm Reduct J 2005; 2: 12
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bell JE, Busuttil A, Ironside JW, Rebus S, Donaldson YK, Simmonds P, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus and the brain: Investigation of virus load and neuropathologic changes in pre-AIDS subjects. Journal of Infectious Diseases 1993; 168: 818–824
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell JE, Donaldson YK, Lowrie S, McKenzie CA, Elton RA, Chiswick A, et al. Influence of risk group and zidovudine therapy on the development of HIV encephalitis and cognitive impairment in AIDS patients. AIDS 1996; 10: 493–499
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell JE, Brettle RP, Chiswick A, Simmonds P. HIV encephalitis, proviral load and dementia in drug users and homosexuals with AIDS. Effect of neocortical involvement. Brain 1998; 121(Pt 11)2043–2052
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brack-Werner R. Astrocytes: HIV cellular reservoirs and important participants in neuropathogenesis. AIDS 1999; 13: 1–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brew BJ. Evidence for a change in AIDS dementia complex in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy and the possibility of new forms of AIDS dementia complex. AIDS 2004; 18(Suppl.1)S75–78
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brew BJ, Pemberton L, Blennow K, Wallin A, Hagberg L. CSF amyloid beta42 and tau levels correlate with AIDS dementia complex. Neurology 2005; 65: 1490–1492
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budka H. Multinucleated giant cells in brain: A hallmark of the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1986; 69: 253–258
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Budka H, Costanzi G, Cristina S, Lechi A, Parravicini C, Trabattoni R, et al. Brain pathology induced by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). A histological, immunocytochemical, and electron microscopical study of 100 autopsy cases. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1987; 75: 185–198
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budka H. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) envelope and core proteins in CNS tissues of patients with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1990; 79: 611–619
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budka H. Neuropathology of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Brain Pathology 1991; 1: 163–175
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bukrinsky MI, Nottet HS, Schmidtmayerova H, Dubrovsky L, Flanagan CR, Mullins ME, et al. Regulation of nitric oxide synthase activity in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected monocytes: Implications for HIV-associated neurological disease. Journal of Experimental Medicine 1995; 181: 735–745
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buttner A, Rohrmoser K, Mall G, Penning R, Weis S. Widespread axonal damage in the brain of drug abusers as evidenced by accumulation of beta-amyloid precursor protein (beta-APP): An immunohistochemical investigation. Addiction 2006; 101: 1339–1346
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chiesi A, Seeber AC, Dally LG, Floridia M, Rezza G, Vella S. AIDS dementia complex in the Italian National AIDS Registry: Temporal trends (1987-93) and differential incidence according to mode of transmission of HIV-1 infection. Journal of Neurological Science 1996; 144: 107–113
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clapham PR, McKnight A. HIV-1 receptors and cell tropism. British Medical Bulletin 2001; 58: 43–59
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cysique LA, Maruff P, Brew BJ. Prevalence and pattern of neuropsychological impairment in human immunodeficiency virus-infected/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) patients across pre- and post-highly active antiretroviral therapy eras: A combined study of two cohorts. Journal of Neurovirology 2004; 10: 350–357
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Everall IP, Luthert PJ, Lantos PL. Neuronal loss in the frontal cortex in HIV infection. Lancet 1991; 337: 1119–1121
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Everall IP, Luthert PJ, Lantos PL. Neuronal number and volume alterations in the neocortex of HIV infected individuals. Journal of Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1993; 56: 481–486
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Everall IP, Heaton RK, Marcotte TD, Ellis RJ, McCutchan JA, Atkinson JH, et al. Cortical synaptic density is reduced in mild to moderate human immunodeficiency virus neurocognitive disorder. HNRC Group. HIV Neurobehavioral Research Center. Brain Pathology 1999; 9: 209–217
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer-Smith T, Croul S, Adeniyi A, Rybicka K, Morgello S, Khalili K, et al. Macrophage/microglial accumulation and proliferating cell nuclear antigen expression in the central nervous system in human immunodeficiency virus encephalopathy. American Journal of Pathology 2004; 164: 2089–2099
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forton DM, Allsop JM, Main J, Foster GR, Thomas HC, Taylor-Robinson SD. Evidence for a cerebral effect of the hepatitis C virus. Lancet 2001; 358: 38–39
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gartner S. HIV Infection and Dementia. Science 2000; 287: 602–604
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giometto B, An SF, Groves M, Scaravilli T, Geddes JF, Miller R, et al. Accumulation of beta-amyloid precursor protein in HIV encephalitis: Relationship with neuropsychological abnormalities. Ann Neurol 1997; 42: 34–40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glass JD, Fedor H, Wesselingh SL, McArthur JC. Immunocytochemical quantitation of human immunodeficiency virus in the brain: correlations with dementia. Ann Neurol 1995; 38: 755–762
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodkin K, Shapshak P, Metsch LR, McCoy CB, Crandall KA, Kumar M, et al. Cocaine abuse and HIV-1 infection: Epidemiology and neuropathogenesis. Journal of Neuroimmunology 1998; 83: 88–101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray F, Lescs MC. HIV-related demyelinating disease. European Journal of Medicine 1993; 2: 89–96
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gray F, Scaravilli F, Everall I, Chretien F, An S, Boche D, et al. Neuropathology of early HIV-1 infection. Brain Pathology 1996; 6: 1–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray F, Keohane C. The neuropathology of HIV infection in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Brain Pathology 2003; 13: 79–83
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hamers FF, Downs AM. HIV in central and eastern Europe. Lancet 2003; 361: 1035–1044
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jayachandra S, Low KG, Thlick AE, Yu J, Ling PD, Chang Y, et al. Three unrelated viral transforming proteins (vIRF, EBNA2, and E1A) induce the MYC oncogene through the interferon-responsive PRF element by using different transcription coadaptors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the USA 1999; 96: 11566–11571
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jellinger KA, Paulus W. Primary central nervous system lymphomas—new pathological developments. Journal of Neurooncology 1995; 24: 33–36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jellinger KA, Setinek U, Drlicek M, Bohm G, Steurer A, Lintner F. Neuropathology and general autopsy findings in AIDS during the last 15 years. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 2000; 100: 213–220
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaul M, Garden GA, Lipton SA. Pathways to neuronal injury and apoptosis in HIV-associated dementia. Nature 2001; 410: 988–994
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khalsa JH, Kresina T, Sherman K, Vocci F. Medical management of HIV-hepatitis C virus coinfection in injection drug users. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41(Suppl.1)S1–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lambotte O, Deiva K, Tardieu M. HIV-1 persistence, viral reservoir, and the central nervous system in the HAART era. Brain Pathology 2003; 13: 95–103
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langford TD, Letendre SL, Larrea GJ, Masliah E. Changing patterns in the neuropathogenesis of HIV during the HAART era. Brain Pathology 2003; 13: 195–210
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipton SA. Neuropathogenesis of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome dementia. Current Opinion Neurol 1997; 10: 247–253
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MacMahon EM, Glass JD, Hayward SD, Mann RB, Charache P, McArthur JC, et al. Association of Epstein-Barr virus with primary central nervous system lymphoma in AIDS. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1992; 8: 740–742
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mamidi A, DeSimone JA, Pomerantz RJ. Central nervous system infections in individuals with HIV-1 infection. Journal of Neurovirology 2002; 8: 158–167
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez AJ, Sell M, Mitrovics T, Stoltenburg-Didinger G, Iglesias-Rozas JR, Giraldo-Velasquez MA, et al. The neuropathology and epidemiology of AIDS. A Berlin experience. A review of 200 cases. Pathol Res Pract 1995; 191: 427–443
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maschke M, Kastrup O, Esser S, Ross B, Hengge U, Hufnagel A. Incidence and prevalence of neurological disorders associated with HIV since the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Journal of Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2000; 69: 376–380
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masliah E, Heaton RK, Marcotte TD, Ellis RJ, Wiley CA, Mallory M, et al. Dendritic injury is a pathological substrate for human immunodeficiency virus-related cognitive disorders. HNRC Group. The HIV Neurobehavioral Research Center. Annals of Neurology 1997; 42: 963–972
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masliah E, DeTeresa RM, Mallory ME, Hansen LA. Changes in pathological findings at autopsy in AIDS cases for the last 15 years. AIDS 2000; 14: 69–74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McArthur JC, McClernon DR, Cronin MF, Nance-Sproson TE, Saah AJ, St Clair M, et al. Relationship between human immunodeficiency virus-associated dementia and viral load in cerebrospinal fluid and brain. Annals of Neurology 1997; 42: 689–698
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McArthur JC, Brew BJ, Nath A. Neurological complications of HIV infection. Lancet Neurology 2005; 4: 543–555
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCrossan M, Marsden M, Carnie FW, Minnis S, Hansoti B, Anthony IC, et al. An immune control model for viral replication in the CNS during presymptomatic HIV infection. Brain 2006; 129: 503–516
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Merrill JE, Chen IS. HIV-1, macrophages, glial cells, and cytokines in AIDS nervous system disease. Faseb Journal 1991; 5: 2391–2397
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller RF, Isaacson PG, Hall-Craggs M, Lucas S, Gray F, Scaravilli F, et al. Cerebral CD8+ lymphocytosis in HIV-1 infected patients with immune restoration induced by HAART. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 2004; 108: 17–23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nath A, Maragos WF, Avison MJ, Schmitt FA, Berger JR. Acceleration of HIV dementia with methamphetamine and cocaine. Journal Neurovirology 2001; 7: 66–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petito CK, Roberts B, Cantando JD, Rabinstein A, Duncan R. Hippocampal injury and alterations in neuronal chemokine co-receptor expression in patients with AIDS. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology 2001; 60: 377–385
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ramage SN, Anthony IC, Carnie FW, Busuttil A, Robertson R, Bell JE. Hyperphosphorylated tau and amyloid precursor protein deposition is increased in the brains of young drug abusers. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2005; 31: 439–448
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rowe M, Peng-Pilon M, Huen DS, Hardy R, Croom-Carter D, Lundgren E, et al. Upregulation of bcl-2 by the Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane protein LMP1: A B-cell-specific response that is delayed relative to NF-kappa B activation and to induction of cell surface markers. Journal of Virology 1994; 68: 5602–5612
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan EL, Morgello S, Isaacs K, Naseer M, Gerits P. Neuropsychiatric impact of hepatitis C on advanced HIV. Neurology 2004; 62: 957–962
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sacktor N, McDermott MP, Marder K, Schifitto G, Selnes OA, McArthur JC, et al. HIV-associated cognitive impairment before and after the advent of combination therapy. Journal of Neurovirology 2002; 8: 136–142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharer LR, Kapila R. Neuropathologic observations in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1985; 66: 188–198
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shepherd EJ, Brettle RP, Liberski PP, Aguzzi A, Ironside JW, Simmonds P, et al. Spinal cord pathology and viral burden in homosexuals and drug users with AIDS. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1999; 25: 2–10
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stanley LC, Mrak RE, Woody RC, Perrot LJ, Zhang S, Marshak DR, et al. Glial cytokines as neuropathogenic factors in HIV infection: Pathogenic similarities to Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology 1994; 53: 231–238
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swindells S, Zheng J, Gendelman HE. HIV-associated dementia: New insights into disease pathogenesis and therapeutic interventions. AIDS Patient Care STDS 1999; 13: 153–163
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tada H, Rappaport J, Lashgari M, Amini S, Wong-Staal F, Khalili K. Trans-activation of the JC virus late promoter by the tat protein of type 1 human immunodeficiency virus in glial cells. Proceedings of the Nationall Academy of Science of the USA 1990; 87: 3479–3483
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thieblemont N, Weiss L, Sadeghi HM, Estcourt C, Haeffner-Cavaillon N. CD14lowCD16high: A cytokine-producing monocyte subset which expands during human immunodeficiency virus infection. European Journal of Immunology 1995; 25: 3418–3424
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas DL. Hepatitis C and human immunodeficiency virus infection. Hepatology 2002; 36: S201–209
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomlinson GS, Simmonds P, Busuttil A, Chiswick A, Bell JE. Upregulation of microglia in drug users with and without pre-symptomatic HIV infection. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1999; 25: 369–379
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Trillo-Pazos G, Diamanturos A, Rislove L, Menza T, Chao W, Belem P, et al. Detection of HIV-1 DNA in microglia/macrophages, astrocytes and neurons isolated from brain tissue with HIV-1 encephalitis by laser capture microdissection. Brain Pathology 2003; 13: 144–154
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valcour V, Shikuma C, Shiramizu B, Watters M, Poff P, Selnes O, et al. Higher frequency of dementia in older HIV-1 individuals: The Hawaii Aging with HIV-1 Cohort. Neurology 2004; 63: 822–827
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar