Use characteristics and harm potential of ecstasy in The Netherlands

References

• Aarde, S. M., & Taffe, M. A. (2017). Predicting the abuse liability of Entactogen-class, new and emerging psychoactive substances via preclinical models of drug self-administration. Current Topics of Behavioral Neuroscience, 32, 145–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_54
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alderliefste, G. J., & Damen, J. (2018). Partydrugsgerelateerde klachten. Huisarts Wetenschap, 61, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12445-018-0285-y
   Google Scholar
• Amoroso, T. (2018). Are the neurocognitive deficits associated with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine caused by statistical deficits in ecstasy research? A systematic review. Drug Science Policy and Law, 4, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/2050324518789214
   Google Scholar
• Amoroso, T., & Amoroso, T. (2019). The spurious relationship between ecstasy use and neurocognitive deficits: A Bradford Hill review. International Journal of Drug Policy, 64, 47–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.11.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baggott, M. J., Coyle, J. R., Erowid, E., Erowid, F., & Robertson, L. C. (2011). Abnormal visual experiences in individuals with histories of hallucinogen use: A web-based questionnaire. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 114(1), 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.09.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bedi, G. (2018). 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine as a Psychiatric Treatment. JAMA Psychiatry, 75(5), 419–420. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.0063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benschop, A., Nabben, T., & Korf, D. J. (2015). Antenne 2014. Trends in alcohol, tabak en drugs bij jonge Amsterdammers. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Rozenberg Publishers. https://www.jellinek.nl/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Antenne-2014.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Boeri, M., Sterk, C., Bahora, M., & Elifson, K. (2008). Poly-drug use among ecstasy users: Separate, synergistic, and indiscriminate patterns. Journal of Drug Issues, 38(2), 517–541. https://doi.org/10.1177/002204260803800207
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boerman, F., Grapendaal, F., Nieuwenhuis, F., & Stoffers, E, Nationaal dreigingsbeeld 2017. (2017). Georganiseerde criminaliteit. Baltimore, MD: Dienst Landelijke Informatieorganisatie. https://www.om.nl/publish/pages/54055/17001_-_nbd2017_interactief.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Bosker, W. M., Kuypers, K. P., Conen, S., Kauert, G. F., Toennes, S. W., Skopp, G., & Ramaekers, J. G. (2012). MDMA (ecstasy) effects on actual driving performance before and after sleep deprivation, as function of dose and concentration in blood and oral fluid. Psychopharmacology, 222(3), 367–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-011-2497-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breen, C., Degenhardt, L., Kinner, S., Bruno, R., Jenkinson, R., Matthews, A., & Newman, J. (2006). Alcohol use and risk taking among regular ecstasy users. Substance Use & Misuse, 41(8), 1095–1109. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826080500411528
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunt, T. M., Koeter, M. W., Niesink, R. J. M., & van den Brink, W. (2012). Linking the pharmacological content of ecstasy tablets to the subjective experiences of drug users. Psychopharmacology, 220(4), 751–762. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-011-2529-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carvalho, M., Carmo, H., Costa, V. M., Capela, J. P., Pontes, H., Remião, F., Carvalho, F., & Bastos, M. D. L. (2012). Toxicity of amphetamines: An update. Archives of Toxicology, 86(8), 1167–1231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-012-0815-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CBS. (2018). Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). Nationale rekeningen revisie 2015. https://www.cbs.nl/-/media/_pdf/2018/21/2018a416%20revisie%20nationale%20rekeningen-web.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Chadwick, I. S., Curry, P. D., Linsley, A., Freemont, A. J., & Doran, B. (1991). Ecstasy, 3-4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), a fatality associated with coagulopathy and hyperthermia. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 84(6), 371. https://doi.org/10.1177/014107689108400622
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowan, R. L. (2007). Neuroimaging research in human MDMA users: A review. Psychopharmacology, 189(4), 539–556. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-006-0467-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curran, H. V. (2000). Is MDMA (‘Ecstasy’) neurotoxic in humans? An overview of evidence and of methodological problems in research. Neuropsychobiology, 42(1), 34–41. https://doi.org/10.1159/000026668
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curran, H. V., & Travill, R. A. (1997). Mood and cognitive effects of +/-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘ecstasy’): Week-end ‘high’ followed by mid-week low. Addiction, 92(7), 821–831. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.1997.9278215.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davidson, D., & Parrott, A. C. (1998). Ecstasy in recreational users: Self-reported psychological and physiological effects. Human Psychopharmacology, 12, 91–97. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1077(199705/06)12:3<221::AID-HUP854>3.0.CO;2-C
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de la Torre, R., Farré, M., Ortuño, J., Mas, M., Brenneisen, R., Roset, P. N., Segura, J., & Camí, J. (2000). Non-linear pharmacokinetics of MDMA (‘ecstasy’) in humans. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 49(2), 104–109. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2125.2000.00121.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Middeleer, F., van Nimwegen, S., Ceulen, R., Gerbrands, S., & Roevens, E. (2018). Illegale drugsmarkten in België en Nederland: Communicerende vaten? Belgian Science Policy Office (BELSPO). https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8564447/file/8564448
   Google Scholar
• de Win, M. M. L., Reneman, L., Jager, G., Vlieger, E. J P., Olabarriaga, S. D., Lavini, C., Bisschops, I., Majoie, C. B. L. M., Booij, J., den Heeten, G. J., & van den Brink, W. (2007). A prospective cohort study on sustained effects of low-dose ecstasy use on the brain in new ecstasy users. Neuropsychopharmacology, 32(2), 458–470. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1301225
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Degenhardt, L., Bruno, R., & Topp, L. (2010). Is ecstasy a drug of dependence? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 107(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.09.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doblin, R., Greer, G., Holland, J., Jerome, L., Mithoefer, M. C., & Sessa, B. (2014). A reconsideration and response to Parrott AC (2013). Human psychobiology of MDMA or ‘Ecstasy’: An overview of 25 years of empirical research. Human Psychopharmacology, 29(2), 105–108. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.2389
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunlap, L. E., Andrews, A. M., & Olson, D. E. (2018). Dark classics in chemical neuroscience: 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine. ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 9(10), 2408–2427. https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edvardsen, H. E., Tverborgvik, T., Frost, J., Rogde, S., Morild, I., Waal, H., Clausen, T., Slørdal, L., & Vindenes, V. (2017). Differences in combinations and concentrations of drugs of abuse in fatal intoxication and driving under the influence cases. Forensic Science International, 281, 127–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.10.045
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EMCDDA. (2016a). European monitoring center for drugs and drug addiction (EMCDDA). EU drug markets report: In-depth analysis (EMCDDA-Europol Joint publications). Publications Office of the European Union, Luxemburg. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/2373/TD0216072ENN.PDF
   Google Scholar
• EMCDDA. (2016b). European monitoring center for drugs and drug addiction (EMCDDA). Technical report. Estimating the size of the main illicit retail drug markets in Europe. Lisbon, Portugal. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/2373/downloads/Technical%20report_Estimating%20the%20size%20of%20main%20drug%20markets.pdf
   Google Scholar
• EMCDDA. (2019a). European monitoring center for drugs and drug addiction (EMCDDA). United Kingdom: Country drug report 2019. Lisbon, Portugal. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/countries/drug-reports/2019/united-kingdom/key-statistics_en
   Google Scholar
• EMCDDA. (2019b). European monitoring center for drugs and drug addiction (EMCDDA). European drug report: Trends and developments. Lisbon, Portugal. http://emcdda.europa.eu/edr2019
   Google Scholar
• Faria, A. C., Carmo, H., Carvalho, F., Silva, J. P., Bastos, M. L., & Dias da Silva, D. (2020). Drinking to death: Hyponatraemia induced by synthetic phenethylamines. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 212, 108045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108045
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freedman, R. R., Johanson, C. E., & Tancer, M. E. (2005). Thermoregulatory effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in humans. Psychopharmacology, 183(2), 248–256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-005-0149-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gowing, L. R., Henry-Edwards, S. M., Irvine, R. J., & Ali, R. L. (2002). The health effects of ecstasy: A literature review. Drug and Alcohol Review, 21(1), 53–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/09595230220119363
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, A. R., Mechan, A. O., Elliott, J. M., O’Shea, E., & Colado, M. I. (2003). The pharmacology and clinical pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “ecstasy”). Pharmacological Reviews, 55(3), 463–508. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.55.3.3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene, S. L., Kerr, F., & Braitberg, G. (2008). Review article: Amphetamines and related drugs of abuse. Emergency Medicine Australasia, 20(5), 391–402. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-6723.2008.01114.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grunau, B. E., Wiens, M. O., & Brubacher, J. R. (2010). Dantrolene in the treatment of MDMA-related hyperpyrexia: A systematic review. CJEM, 12(5), 435–442. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1481803500012598
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gudelsky, G. A., & Yamamoto, B. K. (2008). Actions of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) on cerebral dopaminergic, serotonergic and cholinergic neurons. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 90(2), 198–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2007.10.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall, A. P. (1997). “Ecstasy” and the anaesthetist. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 79(6), 697–698. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/79.6.697
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halpern, J. H., Lerner, A. G., & Passie, T. (2018). A review of hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) and an exploratory study of subjects claiming symptoms of HPPD. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 36, 333–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_457
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Halpern, J. H., Sherwood, A. R., Hudson, J. I., Gruber, S., Kozin, D., & Pope, H. G. J. (2011). Residual neurocognitive features of long-term ecstasy users with minimal exposure to other drugs. Addiction, 106(4), 777–786. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03252.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayley, A. C., Downey, L. A., Shiferaw, B., & Stough, C. (2016). Amphetamine-type stimulant use and the risk of injury or death as a result of a road-traffic accident: A systematic review of observational studies. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 26(6), 901–922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2016.02.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henry, J. A. (1992). Ecstasy and the dance of death. BMJ, 305(6844), 5–6. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.305.6844.5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Henry, J. A., Jeffreys, K. J., & Dawling, S. (1992). Toxicity and deaths from 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (“ecstasy”). The Lancet, 340(8816), 384–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(92)91469-O
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Het, P. (2019). Duizenden dam tot Damlopers Niet Van start. https://www.parool.nl/amsterdam/duizenden-dam-tot-damlopers-niet-van-start∼bcbc46d8/
   Google Scholar
• Home Office. (2018). Drug misuse: Findings from the 2017/18 crime survey for England and Wales. Statistical Bulletin 14/18. London. https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/drug-misuse-findings-from-the-2017-to-2018-csew
   Google Scholar
• Huxster, J. K., Pirona, A., & Morgan, M. J. (2006). The sub-acute effects of recreational ecstasy (MDMA) use: A controlled study in humans. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 20(2), 281–290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881106060513
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iversen, L., White, M., & Treble, R. (2014). Designer psychostimulants: Pharmacology and differences. Neuropharmacology, 87, 59–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.01.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, A. W., Holmgren, A., & Ahlner, J. (2016). Post-mortem concentrations of drugs determined in femoral blood in single-drug fatalities compared with multi-drug poisoning deaths. Forensic Science International, 267, 96–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.08.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalant, H. (2001). The pharmacology and toxicology of “ecstasy” (MDMA) and related drugs. CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal, 165(7), 917–928.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalechstein, A. D., De La Garza, R., Mahoney, J. J., Fantegrossi, W. E., & Newton, T. F. (2007). MDMA use and neurocognition: A meta-analytic review. Psychopharmacology, 189(4), 531–537. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-006-0601-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamphuis, B. (2018). Nederlandse Omroep Sticting (NOS; Dutch Broadcast). Hoe Schat je de Waarde van illegale economie? https://nos.nl/artikel/2233362-hoe-schat-je-de-waarde-van-illegale-economie.html
   Google Scholar
• Keane, M. (2014). Recognising and managing acute hyponatraemia. Emergency Nurse, 21(9), 32–36. https://doi.org/10.7748/en2014.02.21.9.32.e1128
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kinner, S. A., George, J., Johnston, J., Dunn, M., & Degenhardt, L. (2012). Pills and pints: Risky drinking and alcohol-related harms among regular ecstasy users in Australia. Drug and Alcohol Review, 31(3), 273–280. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2011.00348.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiyatkin, E. A., Kim, A. H., Wakabayashi, K. T., Baumann, M. H., & Shaham, Y. (2014). Critical role of peripheral vasoconstriction in fatal brain hyperthermia induced by MDMA (Ecstasy) under conditions that mimic human drug use. Journal of Neuroscience, 34(23), 7754–7762. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0506-14.2014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koob, G. F. (1992). Neural mechanisms of drug reinforcement. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 654(1), 171–191. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1992.tb25966.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Koob, G. F., & Bloom, F. E. (1988). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of drug dependence. Science, 242(4879), 715–723. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2903550
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurtz, S. P., Buttram, M. E., & Surratt, H. L. (2017). Benzodiazepine dependence among young adult participants in the club scene who use drugs. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 49(1), 39–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2016.1269978
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuypers, K. P., & Ramaekers, J. G. (2005). Transient memory impairment after acute dose of 75 mg 3.4-Methylene-dioxymethamphetamine. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 19(6), 633–639. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881105056670
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuypers, K. P., & Ramaekers, J. G. (2006). Acute dose of MDMA (75 mg) impairs spatial memory for location but leaves contextual processing of visuospatial information unaffected. Psychopharmacology, 189(4), 557–563. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-006-0321-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuypers, K. P., Samyn, N., & Ramaekers, J. G. (2006). MDMA and alcohol effects, combined and alone, on objective and subjective measures of actual driving performance and psychomotor function. Psychopharmacology, 187(4), 467–475. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-006-0434-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuypers, K. P. C., Theunissen, E. L., van Wel, J. H. P., de Sousa Fernandes Perna, E. B., Linssen, A., Sambeth, A., Schultz, B. G., & Ramaekers, J. G. (2016). Verbal memory impairment in polydrug ecstasy users: A clinical perspective. PLoS One, 11(2), 11, e0149438. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0149438
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lameijer, M., Wijers, L., Croes, E., de Ruiter, N., & Valkenberg, H. (2018). Monitor drugsincidenten. Factsheet 2017. Trimbos, Utrecht, The Netherlands. https://www.trimbos.nl/docs/92d66803-a73a-4fbe-9834-9a6e65cefb25.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Laws, K. R., & Kokkalis, J. (2007). Ecstasy (MDMA) and memory function: A meta-analytic update. Human Psychopharmacology, 22(6), 381–388. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.857
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liechti, M. E. (2014). Effects of MDMA on body temperature in humans. Temperature, 1(3), 192–200. https://doi.org/10.4161/23328940.2014.955433
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Litjens, R. P. W., Brunt, T. M., Alderliefste, G. J., & Westerink, R. H. S. (2014). Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder and the serotonergic system: A comprehensive review including new MDMA-related clinical cases. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 24(8), 1309–1323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2014.05.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lurie, Y., Gopher, A., Lavon, O., Almog, S., Sulimani, L., & Bentur, Y. (2012). Severe paramethoxymethamphetamine (PMMA) and paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA) outbreak in Israel. Clinical Toxicology, 50(1), 39–43. https://doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2011.635148
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martins, S. S., Mazzotti, G., & Chilcoat, H. D. (2005). Trends in ecstasy use in the United States from 1995 to 2001: Comparison with marijuana users and association with other drug use. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 13(3), 244–252. https://doi.org/10.1037/1064-1297.13.3.244
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mead, J., & Parrott, A. (2020). Mephedrone and MDMA: A comparative review. Brain Research, 1735, 146740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146740
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, J. S. (2013). 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA): Current perspectives. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation, 4, 83–99. https://doi.org/10.2147/SAR.S37258
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Michael White, C. (2014). How MDMA’s pharmacology and pharmacokinetics drive desired effects and harms. The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 54(3), 245–252. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcph.266
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mithoefer, M. C., Mithoefer, A. T., Feduccia, A. A., Jerome, L., Wagner, M., Wymer, J., Holland, J., Hamilton, S., Yazar-Klosinski, B., Emerson, A., & Doblin, R. (2018). 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-assisted psychotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans, firefighters, and police officers: A randomised, double-blind, dose-response, phase 2 clinical trial. The Lancet Psychiatry, 5(6), 486–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30135-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monshouwer, K., van der Pol, P., Drost, Y. C., & van Laar, M. W. (2016). Het Grote Uitgaansonderzoek Uitgaanspatronen, middelengebruik en preventieve maatregelen onder uitgaande jongeren en jongvolwassenen. Trimbos-instituut, Utrecht, The Netherlands. https://www.trimbos.nl/docs/da0f3e40-3ad6-498d-852c-9d59105a85c2.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Morgan, M. J. (2000). Ecstasy (MDMA): A review of its possible persistent psychological effects. Psychopharmacology, 152(3), 230–248. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002130000545
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mueller, F., Lenz, C., Steiner, M., Dolder, P. C., Walter, M., Lang, U. E., Liechti, M. E., & Borgwardt, S. (2016). Neuroimaging in moderate MDMA use: A systematic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 62, 21–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.12.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Müller, F., Brändle, R., Liechti, M. E., & Borgwardt, S. (2019). Neuroimaging of chronic MDMA (“ecstasy”) effects: A meta-analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 96, 10–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.11.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murnane, K. S., Kimmel, H. L., Rice, K. C., & Howell, L. L. (2012). The neuropharmacology of prolactin secretion elicited by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (“ecstasy”): A concurrent microdialysis and plasma analysis study. Hormones and Behavior, 61(2), 181–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.10.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy, P. N., Bruno, R., Ryland, I., Wareing, M., Fisk, J. E., Montgomery, C., & Hilton, J. (2012). The effects of ‘ecstasy’ (MDMA) on visuospatial memory performance: Findings from a systematic review with meta-analyses. Human Psychopharmacology, 27(2), 113–138. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.1270
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nabben, T. (2010). High Amsterdam. Ritme, roes en regels in het uitgaansleven (thesis). Amsterdam: Rozenberg Publishers. https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/17757542/Proefschrift.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Nabben, T., Benschop, A., Korf, D. J. (2016). Antenne 2015. Trends in alcohol, tabak en drugs bij jonge Amsterdammers. Rozenberg Publishers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. https://www.jellinek.nl/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Antenne-2015.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Nabben, T., Luijk, S. J., Korf, D. J. (2018). Antenne 2017. Trends in alcohol, tabak en drugs bij jonge Amsterdammers. Amsterdam: Rozenberg Publishers. http://www.bonger.nl/PDF/Antenne%20Amsterdam%202017.pdf
   Google Scholar
• NIH. National Institutes of Health (NIH), Health & Human Services. (2018). 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine. Human health Effects. Toxicity summary. https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search2/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@rn+@rel+42542-10-9
   Google Scholar
• Nulsen, C. E., Fox, A. M., & Hammond, G. R. (2010). Differential effects of ecstasy on short-term and working memory: A meta-analysis. Neuropsychology Review, 20(1), 21–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-009-9124-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nutt, D., King, L. A., Saulsbury, W., & Blakemore, C. (2007). Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse. The Lancet, 369(9566), 1047–1053. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parrott, A. C., & Lasky, J. (1998). Ecstasy (MDMA) effects upon mood and cognition: Before, during and after a Saturday night dance. Psychopharmacology, 139(3), 261–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002130050714
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Office for National Statistics. (2018a). Dataset: Deaths related to drug poisoning by selected substances. http://tinyurl.com/y8hohvdj
   Google Scholar
• Office for National Statistics. (2018b). Alcohol-specific deaths in the UK: registered in 2017 2018b. http://tinyurl.com/y6g7s9fx
   Google Scholar
• Office for National Statistics. (2013). Drug misuse declared: Findings from the 2011/12 crime survey of England and Wales, (2nd ed.). Home Office. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/147938/drugs-misuse-dec-1112-pdf.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Parrott, A. C. (2002). Recreational Ecstasy/MDMA, the serotonin syndrome, and serotonergic neurotoxicity. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 71(4), 837–844. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0091-3057(01)00711-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parrott, A. C. (2005). Chronic tolerance to recreational MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) or Ecstasy. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 19(1), 71–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881105048900
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parrott, A. C. (2006). MDMA in humans: Factors which affect the neuropsychobiological profiles of recreational ecstasy users, the integrative role of bioenergetic stress. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 20(2), 147–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881106063268
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parrott, A. C. (2012). MDMA and temperature: A review of the thermal effects of ‘Ecstasy’ in humans. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 121(1–2), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.08.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parrott, A. C. (2013). Human psychobiology of MDMA or ‘Ecstasy’: An overview of 25 years of empirical research. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 28(4), 289–307. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.2318
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parrott, A. C. (2014). MDMA is certainly damaging after 25 years of empirical research: A reply and refutation of Doblin et al. (2014). Human Psychopharmacology, 29(2), 109–119. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.2390
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parrott, A. C., Milani, R. M., Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E., & Daumann, J. (2007). Cannabis and Ecstasy/MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine): An analysis of their neuropsychobiological interactions in recreational users. Journal of Neural Transmission, 114(8), 959–968. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-007-0715-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parrott, A. C., Sisk, E., & Turner, J. J. (2000). Psychobiological problems in heavy ‘ecstasy’ (MDMA) polydrug users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 60(1), 105–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-8716(00)80013-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel, M. M., Belson, M. G., Longwater, A. B., Olson, K. R., & Miller, M. A. (2005). Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy)-related hyperthermia. The Journal of Emergency Medicine, 29(4), 451–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2005.05.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peroutka, S. J., Newman, H., & Harris, H. (1988). Subjective effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in recreational users. Neuropsychopharmacology: Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 1(4), 273–277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramaekers, J. G., Kuypers, K. P. C., Bosker, W. M., Brookhuis, K. A., Veldstra, J. A., Simons, R., Martens, M., Hjälmdahl, M., Forsman, Å., & Knoche, A. (2012). Effects of stimulant drugs on actual and simulated driving: Perspectives from four experimental studies conducted as part of the DRUID research consortium. Psychopharmacology, 222(3), 413–418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-012-2766-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rigg, K. K. (2017). Motivations for using MDMA (Ecstasy/Molly) among African Americans: Implications for prevention and harm-reduction programs. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 49(3), 192–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2017.1305518
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rigg, K. K., & Sharp, A. (2018). Nonmedical prescription drug use among African Americans who use MDMA (ecstasy/molly): Implications for risk reduction. Addictive Behaviors, 79, 159–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.12.024
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts, C. A., Jones, A., & Montgomery, C. (2016). Meta-analysis of executive functioning in ecstasy/polydrug users. Psychological Medicine, 46(8), 1581–1596. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716000258
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers, G., Elston, J., Garside, R., Roome, C., Taylor, R., Younger, P., Zawada, A., & Somerville, M. (2009). The harmful health effects of recreational ecstasy: A systematic review of observational evidence. Health Technology Assessment, 13(6), 1–315. https://doi.org/10.3310/hta13060
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothman, R. B., Baumann, M. H., Dersch, C. M., Romero, D. V., Rice, K. C., Carroll, F. I., & Partilla, J. S. (2001). Amphetamine-type central nervous system stimulants release norepinephrine more potently than they release dopamine and serotonin. Synapse, 39(1), 32–41. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-2396(20010101)39:1<32::AID-SYN5>3.0.CO;2-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roxburgh, A., & Lappin, J. (2020). MDMA-related deaths in Australia 2000 to 2018. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 76, 102630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.102630
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rusyniak, D. E., & Sprague, J. E. (2006). Hyperthermic syndromes induced by toxins. Clinics in Laboratory Medicine, 26(1), 165–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cll.2006.01.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schilt, T., de Win, M. M. L., Koeter, M., Jager, G., Korf, D. J., van den Brink, W., & Schmand, B. (2007). Cognition in novice ecstasy users with minimal exposure to other drugs: A prospective cohort study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(6), 728–736. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.6.728
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schinkel, B., & Felix, N. (2018). NOS op 3 (Dutch Broadcast). Zo wordt drugsafval gedumpt, duizenden Euro’s schade en mais met mdma-resten. https://nos.nl/op3/artikel/2246696-zo-wordt-drugsafval-gedumpt-duizenden-euro-s-schade-en-mais-met-mdma-resten.html
   Google Scholar
• Schoenmakers, Y. M. M., & Mehlbaum, S. L. (2017). Drugsafval Brabant. Justitiële verkenningen, (pp. 89–102). https://www.wodc.nl/binaries/JV1702_Volledige%20tekst_tcm28-259189.pdf#page=90
   Google Scholar
• Schoenmakers, Y. M. M., Mehlbaum, S. L., Everartz, M., & Poelarends, C. (2016). Elke dump is een plaats delict. Dumping en lozing van synthetisch drugsafval: Verschijningsvormen en politieaanpak. Politie & Wetenschap, Apeldoorn, The Netherlands/Reed Business, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. https://www.yvetteschoenmakers.nl/assets/pdf/ElkedumpiseenPD.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Scottish Government. (2016). Scottish crime and justice survey 2014/15: Drug use. http://www.gov.scot/Resource/0050/00502173.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Sessa, B. (2018). Why MDMA therapy for alcohol use disorder? And why now? Neuropharmacology, 142, 83–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.11.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sessa, B., Higbed, L., & Nutt, D. (2019). A review of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-assisted psychotherapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 138. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00138
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simmler, L. D., & Liechti, M. E. (2018). Pharmacology of MDMA- and amphetamine-like new psychoactive substances. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, 252, 143–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/164_2018_113
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Steele, T. D., Katz, J. L., & Ricaurte, G. A. (1992). Evaluation of the neurotoxicity of N-methyl-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2-aminopropane (para-methoxymethamphetamine, PMMA). Brain Research, 589(2), 349–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(92)91298-S
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szigeti, B., Winstock, A. R., Erritzoe, D., & Maier, L. J. (2018). Are ecstasy induced serotonergic alterations overestimated for the majority of users? Journal of Psychopharmacology, 32(7), 741–748. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881118767646
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tao, R., Shokry, I. M., & Callanan, J. J. (2017). Environment influencing serotonin syndrome induced by ecstasy abuse. Annals of Forensic Research Analysis, 4, 1039–1054.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tops, P., & Tromp, J. (2019). De achterkant van Amsterdam. Een verkenning van drugsgerelateerde criminaliteit. https://assets.amsterdam.nl/publish/pages/918763/onderzoeksrapport_de_achterkant_van_amsterdam.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Tops, P., van Valkenhoef, J., van der Torre, E., & van Spijk, L. (2018). Waar een klein land groot in kan zijn. Nederland en synthetische drugs in de afgelopen 50 jaar. Boom criminologie, Den Haag, The Netherlands. https://tinyurl.com/yzk7pumj
   Google Scholar
• Trautmann, F., Kilmer, B., & Turnbull, P. (2013). Further insights into aspects of the illicit EU drugs market. https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/e-library/documents/policies/organized-crime-and-human-trafficking/drug-control/docs/eu_market_full.pdf
   Google Scholar
• van Amsterdam, J. G. C., Pennings, E., & van den Brink, W. (2020). Fatal and non-fatal health incidents related to recreational ecstasy use. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 34(6), 591–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881119897559
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Amsterdam, J. G., Ramaekers, J., Verkes, R. J., Kuypers, K. P. C., Goudriaan, A. E., & van den Brink, W. (2019). Alcohol and drug related public violence in Europe. European Journal of Criminology, 147737081982832. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370819828324
   Google Scholar
• van Amsterdam, J., Nutt, D., Phillips, L., & van den Brink, W. (2015). European rating of drug harms. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 29(6), 655–660. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881115581980
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Amsterdam, J., Opperhuizen, A., Koeter, M., & van den Brink, W. (2010). Ranking the harm of alcohol, tobacco and illicit drugs for the individual and the population. European Addiction Research, 16(4), 202–207. https://doi.org/10.1159/000317249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van den Besselaar, J., & van Grootel, M. (2017). ERISSP meldingen. Synthetische drugs, precursoren, nieuwe psychoactieve stoffen 2014, 2015 en 2016. Meldingen omtrent productielocaties, opslaglocaties en dumplocaties. Politie Landelijk Eenheid/Dienst Landelijke Recherche. Retrieved from https://www.politie.nl/binaries/content/assets/politie/nieuws/2018/rapport-2014-2015-2016-en-2017-.pdf
   Google Scholar
• van der Gouwe, D., & Rigter, S. (2018). Drugs Informatie en Monitoring Systeem (DIMS). Jaarbericht 2017. Trimbos, Utrecht, The Netherlands. https://assets.trimbos.nl/docs/0bcf0e44-aed8-4677-80d0-18c57ddea56e.pdf
   Google Scholar
• van der Pol, P., & van Laar, M. W. (2016). Kerncijfers drugsgebruik 2014. Gezondheidsenquête/Leefstijlmonitor 2014. Trimbos, Utrecht an RIVM, Bilthoven, The Netherlands. https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/nieuws/2015/29/kwart-miljoen-nederlanders-gebruikt-ecstasy and https://www.cbs.nl/-/media/imported/documents/2016/53/af1400%20factsheet%20kerncijfers%20drugsgebruik%20erratum.pdf?la=nl-nl
   Google Scholar
• van Laar, M. W., & van Ooyen-Houben, M. M. J. (2017). Nationale drug monitor. Jaarbericht 2016. Trimbos Instituut, Utrecht, The Netherlands. https://www.trimbos.nl/docs/3fdeab39-f34e-4aa0-97af-5dbf111c05a0.pdf
   Google Scholar
• van Laar, M. W., van Gestel, B., Cruts, A. A. N., van der Pol, P. M., Ketelaars, A. P. M., Beenakkers, E. T. M., & van Miltenburg, C. J. A. (2019). Nationale drug monitor. Jaarbericht 2018. Trimbos Instituut, Utrecht, The Netherlands. https://www.trimbos.nl/aanbod/webwinkel/product/af1643-jaarbericht-nationale-drug-monitor-2018
   Google Scholar
• Vanden Eede, H., Montenij, L. J., Touw, D. J., & Norris, E. M. (2012). Rhabdomyolysis in MDMA intoxication: A rapid and underestimated killer. “Clean” Ecstasy, a safe party drug? The Journal of Emergency Medicine, 42(6), 655–658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2009.04.057
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaughn, M. G., Salas-Wright, C. P., DeLisi, M., Perron, B. E., & Cordova, D. (2015). Crime and violence among MDMA users in the United States. AIMS Public Health, 2(1), 64–73. https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2015.1.64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vevelstad, M., Øiestad, E. L., Middelkoop, G., Hasvold, I., Lilleng, P., Delaveris, G. J. M., Eggen, T., Mørland, J., & Arnestad, M. (2012). The PMMA epidemic in Norway: Comparison of fatal and non-fatal intoxications. Forensic Science International, 219(1–3), 151–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.12.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu, L. T., Schlenger, W. E., & Galvin, D. M. (2006). Concurrent use of methamphetamine, MDMA, LSD, ketamine, GHB, and flunitrazepam among American youths. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 84(1), 102–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.01.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wunderli, M. D., Vonmoos, M., Fürst, M., Schädelin, K., Kraemer, T., Baumgartner, M. R., Seifritz, E., & Quednow, B. B. (2017). Discrete memory impairments in largely pure chronic users of MDMA. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 27(10), 987–999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2017.08.425
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yazar-Klosinski, B. B., & Mithoefer, M. C. (2017). Potential psychiatric uses for MDMA. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 101(2), 194–196. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpt.565
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar