6,422
Views
88
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the treatment of depression

, , , &

References

  • Akbaraly, T. N., Sabia, S., Shipley, M. J., Batty, G. D. and Kivimaki M (2013) Adherence to healthy dietary guidelines and future depressive symptoms: evidence for sex differentials in the Whitehall II study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 97:419–427
  • Amminger, G. P., Schafer, M. R., Papageorgiou, K., Klier, C. M., Cotton, S. M., Harrigan, S. M., Mackinnon, A., Mcgorry, P. D. and Berger, G. E. (2010). Long-chain ω-3 fatty acids for indicated prevention of psychotic disorders. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 67:146–154.
  • Andreescu, C., Mulsant, B. H. and Emanuel, J. E. (2008). Complementary and alternative medicine in the treatment of bipolar disorder - a review of the evidence. J. Affect. Disord. 110:16–26.
  • Andrews P. W., Anderson Thomson Jr T., Amstadter A. and Neale M. C. (2012). Primum non nocere: an evolutionary analysis of whether antidepressants do more harm than good. Psychology. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00117
  • Appleton, K. M., Hayward, R. C., Gunnell, D., Peters, T. J., Rogers, P. J., Kessler, D. and Ness, A. R.(2006). Effects of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on depressed mood: systematic review of published trials. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 84:1308–1316.
  • Appleton, K. M., Rogers, P. J. and Ness, A. R. (2010). Updated systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on depressed mood. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 91:757–70.
  • Arteburn, L., Hall, E. B. and Oken, H. (2006). Distribution, interconversion, and dose response of n-3 fatty acids in humans1–4. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 83(suppl):1467S–1476S.
  • Astorg, P., Couthouis, A., Bertrais, S., Arnault, N., Meneton, P., Guesnet, P., Alessandri, J. M., Galan, P. and Hercberg, S. (2008). Association of fish and long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intakes with the occurrence of depressive episodes in middle-aged French men and women. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 78:171–82.
  • Astorg, P., Bertrais, S., Alessandri, J. M., Guesnet, P., Kesse-Guyot, E., Linard, A., Lallemand, M. S., Galan, P. and Hercberg, S. (2009). Long-chain n-3 fatty acid levels in baseline serum phospholipids do not predict later occurrence of depressive episodes: a nested case-control study within a cohort of middle-aged French men and women. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 81:265–71.
  • Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2008). National Survey of Health and Wellbeing 2007 – Summary of Results.
  • Australian Federal Government: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, viewed April 2010. http://www.aihw.gov.au/cdarf/datapages/incidenceprevalence
  • Barcelo-Coblijn, G., Hogyes, E., Kitajka, K., Puskas, L. G., Zvara, A., Hackler, L., Nyakas, C., Penke, Z. and Farkas, T. (2003). Modification by docosahexaenoic acid of age-induced alterations in gene expression and molecular composition of rat brain phospholipids. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 102:10858–10863.
  • Bebbington, P. (1998). Sex and depression. Psychol. Med. 28:1–8.
  • Bhagwagar, Z. and Cowen, P. (2008). “It's not over when it's over”: persistent neurobiological abnormalities in recovered depressed patients. Psychol. Med. 38:307–313.
  • Black Dog Institute, Victoria, Australia 2010. Viewed 19 April , 2010 http://www.blackdoginstitute.org.au/docs/FactsandFiguresfactsheet.pdf
  • Blumenthal, J. A., Babyak, M. A., Doraiswamy, P. M., Hoffman, B. M., Barbour, K. A., Herman, S., Craighead, W. E., Brosse, A. L., Waugh, R., Hinderliter, A. and Sherwood, A. (2007). Exercise and Pharmacotherapy in the treatment of Major Depressive Disorder. Psychosom. Med. 69:587–596.
  • Bowen, B., Raffick, A. R., Clandinin, Michael, T (2002). Dietary low linolenic acid compared with docosahexaenoic acid alter synaptic plasma membrane phospholipid fatty acid composition and sodium-potassium ATPase kinetics in developing rats. J. Neurochem. 83:764–774.
  • Brenes, G. A., Williamson, J. D., Messier, S. P., Rejeski, W. J., Pahor, M., IP, E. and Pennix, B. (2007). Treatment of Minor Depression in Older Adults: A Pilot Study Comparing sertraline and exercise. Aging Ment. Health. 11:61–68
  • Brown, G. W., Craig, T. K. and Harris, T. O. (2008). Parental maltreatment and proximal risk factors using the Childhood Experience of Care and Abuse (CECA) instrument: a life-course study of adult chronic depression - 5. J. Affect. Disord. 110:222–233
  • Brunoni, A. R., Fragnus, R. and Fregni, F. (2009). Pharmacological and Combined Interventions for the Acute Depressive Episode: Focus on Efficacy and Tolerability. Ther. Clin. Risk Manag. 5:897–910.
  • Calder, P. (2006). n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and inflammatory diseases 1–3 Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 83(suppl):1505S–1519S.
  • Caspi, A. (2003). Influence of Life Stress on Depression: Moderation by a Polymorphism in the 5-HTT Gene. Science. 301:386.
  • Chalon, S. (2006). Omega 3 Fatty Acids and Monoamine Transmission. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 75:259–269.
  • Clarke, H., Flint, J., Attwood, A. S. and Munaf∫, M. R. (2010). Association of the 5- HTTLPR genotype and unipolar depression: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Med. 40:1767–1778.
  • Colangelo, L. A., He, K., Whooley, M. A., Daviglus, M. L. and Liu, K. (2009). Higher dietary intake of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids is inversely associated with depressive symptoms in women. Nutrition. 25:1011–1019.
  • Conklin, S. M., Harris, J. I., Manuck, S. B., Yao, J. K., Hibbeln, J. R. and Muldoon, M. F. (2007). Serum omega-3 fatty acids are associated with variation in mood, personality and behavior in hypercholesterolemic community volunteers. Psychiatry Res. 152:1–10.
  • Conklin, S. M., Manuck, S. B., Yao, J. K., Flory, J. D., Hibbeln, J. R. & Muldoon, M. F. (2007). High omega-6 and low omega-3 fatty acids are associated with depressive symptoms and neuroticism. Psychosom Med. 69:932–934.
  • Conklin, S. M., Runyan, C., Leonard, S., Reddy, R. D., Muldoon, M. and Yao, J. K. (2010). Age-related changes of n-3 and n-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in the Anterior Cingulate Cortex of Individuals with Major Depressive Disorder. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 82:111–119.
  • Connor, W. E. (2000). Importance of n-3 fatty acids in health and disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 71:171S–175S.
  • Crowe, F., Skeaff, M., Green, T. and Gray, A. (2007). Serum phospholipid n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and physical and mental health in a population-based survey of New Zealand adolescents and adults1–3 Am. J. Clin. Nutr 86:1278–1285.
  • Das, U. N. 2006. Essential fatty acids: Biochemistry, physiology and pathology. Biotechnical J. 1:420–439.
  • Defilippis, A. P. and Sperling, L. S. 2006. Understanding Omega-3′s. Am. Heart J. 151:564–570.
  • Dunn, A. L. and Dishman, R. K. (1991). Exercise and the neurobiology of depression. Exerc Sport Sci. Rev. 19:41–98.
  • Eaton, W. W., Muntaner, C., Borasso, G. and Smith, C. (2001). Socioeconomic Status and Depressive Syndrome: The Role of Inter-and Intra-Generational Mobility, Government Assistance and Work Environment. J. Health Soc. Behav. 42:277–294.
  • Feart, C., Peuchant, E., Letenneur, L., Samieri, C., Montagnier, D., Fourrier-Reglat, A. and Barberger-Gateau, P. (2008). Plasma eicosapentaenoic acid is inversely associated with severity of depressive symptomatology in the elderly: data from the Bordeaux sample of the Three-City Study1–3. Am J Clin Nutr 87:1156–1162.
  • Ferraz, A. C., Kiss, A., Araujo, R. L., Salles, H. M., Naliwaiko, K., Pamplona, J. and Matheussi, F. (2008). The antidepressant role of dietary long-chain polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acids in two phases in the developing brain. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 78:183–188.
  • Frangou, S., Lewis, M. and McCrone, P. (2006). Efficacy of ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid in Bi-Polar Depression: a Randomised Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Br. J. Psych. 188:46–50.
  • Freeman, M. P. (2009). Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry, 70 Suppl 5:7–11.
  • Freeman, M. P., Hibbeln, J. R., Wisner, K. L., Davis, J. M., Mischoulon, D., Peet, M., Keck, P. E., Jr., Marangell, L. B., Richardson, A. J., Lake, J. and Stoll, A. L. (2006). Omega-3 fatty acids: evidence basis for treatment and future research in psychiatry. J. Clin. Psychiatry. 67:1954–1967.
  • Gillespie, N., Whitfield, J., Williams, B., Heath, A. and Marin, N. (2005). The relationship between stressful life events, the serotonin transporter (5-HTTLPR) genotype and major depression. Psychol. Med. 35:101–111.
  • Goldberg, D. (2006). The aetiology of depression. Psychol. Med. 36:1341–1347.
  • Grossfield, A., Feller, S. E. and Pitman, M. C. (2006). A role for direct interactions in the modulation of rhodopsin by ω-3 polyunsaturated lipids. Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA. 103:4888–4893.
  • Grenyer, B. F., Crowe, T., Meyer, B., Owen, A. J., Grigonis-Deane, E. M., Caputi, P. and Howe, P. R. (2007). Fish oil supplementation in the treatment of major depression: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol Biol. Psychiatry. 31:1393–1396.
  • Hakkarainen, R., Partonen, T., Haukka, J., Virtamo, J., Albanes, D. and Lonnqvist, J. (2004). Is low dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids associated with depression? Am. J. Psychiatry. 161:567–569.
  • Hallahan, B., Hibbeln, J. R., Davis, J. M. and Garland, M. R. (2007). Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in patients with recurrent self-harm. Single-centre double-blind randomised controlled trial. Br. J. Psychiatry. 190:118–122.
  • Hibbeln, J. (1998). Fish Consumption and major depression. Lancet. 351.
  • Hibbeln, J. and Davis, J. (2009). Considerations regarding neuropsychiatric nutritional requirements for intakes of omega-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids. 81:179–186.
  • Hibbeln, J. R. (2002). Seafood Consumption, the DHA Content of Mother's Milk and Prevalence Rates of Postpartum Depression: A Cross-national Ecological Analysis. J. Affect. Disord. 69:15–29.
  • Hibbeln, J. R., Nieminen, L., Blasbal G, T., Riggs, J. and Lands, W. (2006). Healthy intakes of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids: estimations considering worldwide diversity1–5. Am. J. Clin. Nut. 83(suppl):1483S–1493S.
  • Horrobin, D. F. (2001). Phospholipid Metabolism and Depression: the possible roles of Phospholipase A2 Co-enzyme A-Independent Transacylase. Human Psychopharmacol Clin. Exp. 16:45–52.
  • Jazayeri, S., Tehrani-Doost, M., Keshavarz, S. A., Hosseini, M., Djazayery, A., Amini, H., Jalali, M. and Peet, M. (2008). Comparison of therapeutic effects of omega 3 fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid and fluoxetin, separately and in combination, in major depressive disorder. Aust. N Z J Psychiatry. 42:192–198.
  • Joyce, P. R. (2007). The evolving neurobiology of depression: from synapses to neurons, circuits and loops. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 41:561–562.
  • Kamphuis, M. H., Geerlings, M. I., Tijhuis, M. A., Kalmijn, S., Grobbee, D. E. and Kromhout, D. (2006). Depression and cardiovascular mortality: a role for n-3 fatty acids? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 84:1513–1517.
  • Keck, P. E., Jr., Mintz, J., Mcelroy, S. L., Freeman, M. P., Suppes, T., Frye, M. A., Altshuler, L. L., Kupka, R., Nolen, W. A., Leverich, G. S., Denicoff, K. D., Grunze, H., Duan, N. and Post, R. M. (2006). Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials of ethyl-eicosapentanoate in the treatment of bipolar depression and rapid cycling bipolar disorder. Biol. Psychiatry. 60:1020–1022.
  • Kemper, K. J. and Shannon, S. (2007). CAM Therapies to Promote Healthy Moods. Pediat. Clin. North Am. 54:901.
  • Kendler, K. S. and Gardner, C. O. (2001). Monozygotic twins discordant for major depression: a preliminary exploration of the role of environmental experiences in the aetiology and course of illness. Psychol. Med. 31:411–423.
  • Kendler, K. S., Gardner, C. O. and Lichtenstein, P. (2008). A developmental twin study of symptoms of anxiety and depression: evidence for genetic innovation and attenuation. Psychol. Med. 38:1567–1575.
  • Kendler, K. S., Gatz, M., GardneR, C. O. and Pedersen, N. L. (2006). A Swedish national twin study of lifetime major depression. Am. J. Psychiatry. 163:109–114.
  • Kendler, K. S., Myers, J. and Prescott, C. A. (2005). Sex differences in the relationship between social support and risk for major depression: a longitudinal study of opposite-sex twin pairs. Am. J. Psychiatry. 162:250–256.
  • Kendler, K. S. and Prescott, C. A. (1999). A Population-Based Twin Study of Lifetime Major Depression in Men and Women. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 56:39–44.
  • Kendler, K. S., Thornton, L. M. and Prescott, C. A. (2001). Gender differences in the rates of exposure to stressful life events and sensitivity to their depressogenic effects. Am. J. Psychiatry. 158:587–593.
  • Kidd, P. M. (2007). Omega-3 DHA and EPA for cognition, behaviour, and mood: clinical findings and structural-functional synergies with cell membrane phospholipids. Altern. Med. Rev. 12:207–227.
  • Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Belury, M. A., Porter, K. Beversdorf, D. Q., Lemeshow, S. and Glaser, R. (2007). Depressive symptoms, omega-6:omega-3 fatty acids, and inflammation in older adults. Psychosomatic Med. 69:217–224.
  • Kitajka, K., Sinclair, A. J., Weisinger, R. S., Weisinger, H. S., Mathai, M., Jayasooriya, A. P., Halver, J. E. and Puskas, L. G. (2004). Effects of dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on brain gene expression. Porc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA. 101:10931–10936.
  • Kosidou, K., Dalman, C., Lundberg, M., Hallqvist, J., Isacsson, G. and Magnusson, C. (2011). Socioeconomic status and risk of psychological distress and depression in the Stockholm Public Health Cohort: A population-based study. J. Affect. Disord. 134:160–167.
  • Krishnan, V. and Nestler, E. J. (2008). The molecular neurobiology of depression. Nature. 455:894–902.
  • Krogh J., Nordentoft M., Sterne J. and Lawlor D. (2010). The Effect of Exercise in Clinically Depressed Adults: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. CNS Drugs. 24:131–161.
  • Lanfumey, L. and Hamon, M. (2005). Neurobiology of depression: new data. Therapie. 60:431–440.
  • Lanni, C., Govoni, S., Lucchelli, A. and Boselli, C. (2009). Depression and antidepressants: molecular and cellular aspects. Cell Mol. Life Sci. 66:2985–3008.
  • Leung, B. M. and Kaplan, B. J. (2009). Perinatal depression: prevalence, risks, and the nutrition link–a review of the literature. J. Am. Dietetic Assoc. 109(9):1556.
  • Leventhal, A. M., Witt, C. F. and Zimmerman, M. (2008). Associations between Depression Subtypes and Substance Use Disorders. Psychiatry Res. 161:43–50.
  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Holm-Denoma, J. M., Small, J. W., Seeley, J. R. and Joiner, T. E. (2008). Separation Anxiety Disorder in Childhood as a Risk Factor for Future Mental Illness. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychia. 47:548–555.
  • Lin, P. Y. and Su, K. P. 2007. A meta-analytic review of double-blind, placebo-controlled trials of antidepressant efficacy of omega-3 fatty acids. J. Clin. Psychiatry. 68:1056–1061.
  • Litman, B. J., Niu, S-L. Polozova, A. and Mitchell, D. C. (2001). The role of docosahexaenoic acid containing phospholipids in modulating G protein-coupled signalling pathways. J. Mol. Neurosci. 16:237–242.
  • Logan, A. C. (2003). Neurobehavioral aspects of omega-3 fatty acids: possible mechanisms and therapeutic value in major depression. Altern. Med. Rev. 8:410–425.
  • Logan, A. C. (2004). Omega-3 fatty acids and major depression: A primer for the mental health professional. Lipids Health Dis. 3:25.
  • Logan, A. C. (2005). Omega-3 and depression research: hold the olive oil. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 72:441.
  • López-Muñoz, F., Bhatara, V. S., Alamo, C. and Cuenca, E. (2004) Historical approach to reserpine discovery and its introduction in psychiatry. Actas Esp Psiquiatr. 32:387–395.
  • Lucas, M., Asselin, G., Merette, C., Poulin, M. J. and Dodin, S. (2009). Ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid for the treatment of psychological distress and depressive symptoms in middle-aged women: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 89:641–651.
  • Magnusson, A., Axelsson, J., Karlsson, M. and Oskarsson, H. (2000). Lack of Seasonal Mood Change in the Icelandic Population: Results of a Cross-Sectional Study. Am. J. Psychiatry. 157:234–238.
  • Maletic, V., Robinson, M., Oakes, T., Iyengar, S., Ball, S. G. and Russell, J. (2007). Neurobiology of depression: an integrated view of key findings. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 61:2030–2040.
  • Mamalakis, G., Tornaritis, M. and Kafatos, A. (2002). Depression and adipose essential polyunsaturated fatty acids. Prostaglandins, Leuk and Ess Fat Ac. 67:311–318.
  • Marangell, L. B., Martinez, J. M., Zboyan, H. A., Kertz, B., Kim, H. F. and Puryear, L. J. (2003). A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid in the treatment of major depression. Am. J. Psychiatry. 160:996–998.
  • Martins, J. G. (2009). EPA but not DHA appears to be responsible for the efficacy of omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in depression: evidence from a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 28:525–542.
  • Mason, W. A., Kosterman, R., Haggerty, K. P., Hawkins, J. D., Redmond, C., Spoth, R. L. and Shin, C. (2008). Dimensions of Adolescent Alcohol Involvement as Predictors of Young-Adult Major Depression. J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs. 69:275–285.
  • Mazza, M., Pomponi, M., Janiri, L., Bria, P. and Mazza, S. (2006). Omega 3 fatty acids and antioxidants in neurological and psychiatric disease: an overview. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry. 31:12–26.
  • Mcnamara, R. K. (2006). The emerging role of omega-3 fatty acids in psychiatry. Prostaglandins, Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 75:223–225.
  • Mcnamara, R. K., Ostrander, M., Abplanalp, W., Richtand, N. M., Benoit, S. C. and Clegg, D. J. (2006). Modulation of phosphoinositide-protein kinase C signal transduction by omega-3 fatty acids: implications for the pathophysiology and treatment of recurrent neuropsychiatric illness. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 75:237–257.
  • Mead, G. E., Morley, W., Campbell, P., Greig, C. A., McMurdo, M. and Lawlor, D. A. (2009). Exercise for depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 3.
  • Mitchell, P., Slade, T. and Andrews, G. (2004). Twelve-month prevalence and disability of DSM-IV bipolar disorder in an Australian general population survey. Psychol. Med. 34:777–785.
  • Munaf∫, M. R., Freimer, N. B., Ng, W., Ophoff, R., Veijola, J., Miettunen, J., Järvelin, M. R., Taanila, A. and Flint, J. (2009). 5-HTTLPR genotype and anxiety-related personality traits: a meta-analysis and new data. Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 150B:271–281
  • Nemets, B., Stahl, Z. and Belmaker, R. H. (2002). Addition of omega-3 fatty acid to maintenance medication treatment for recurrent unipolar depressive disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry. 159:477–479.
  • Nemets, H., Nemets, B., Apter, A., Bracha, Z. and Belmaker, R. H. (2006). Omega 3 Treatment of Childhood Depression: A Controlled Double-Blind Pilot Study. Am. J. Psychiatry. 163:1098–1100.
  • Nestler, E. J., Barrot, M., DileonE, R. J., Eisch, A. J., Gold, S. J. and Monteggia, L. M. (2002). Neurobiology of depression. Neuron. 34:13–25.
  • Oquendo, M. A. and Parsey, R. V. 2007. What have we learned about the neurobiology of major depression? Am. J. Psychiatry. 164:540–2.
  • Owen, C., Rees, A. M. and Parker, G. (2008). The role of fatty acids in the development and treatment of mood disorders. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry. 21:19–24.
  • Parker, G. (2009). Antidepressants on trial: how valid is the evidence? Br. J. Psychiatry. 194:1–3.
  • Parker, G., Gibson, N. A., Brotchie, H., Heruc, G., Rees, A. M. and Hadzi-Pavlovic, D. (2006). Omega-3 fatty acids and mood disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry. 163:969–78.
  • Peet, M. (2003). Eicosapentaenoic acid in the treatment of schizophrenia and depression: rationale and preliminary double-blind clinical trial results. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 69:477–85.
  • Peet, M. and Horrobin, D. (2002). A dose-ranging study of the effects of ethyl-eicosapentaenoate in patients with ongoing depression despite apparently adequate treatment with standard drugs. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 59:913–919.
  • Pifferi, F., Roux, F., Langelier, B., Alessandri, J-M., Vancassel, S., Jouin, M., Lavaille, M. and Guesnet, P. (2005). (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiency reduces the expression of both isoforms of the brain glucose transporter GLUT1 in rats. J. Nutrition. 135:2241–2246.
  • Powers, A., Rossler, K. and Bradley, R. (2009). The Protective Role of Friendship on the Effects of Childhood Abuse and Depression. Depress. Anxiety. 26:46–52.
  • Raison C. L. and Miller A. H. (2013). Role of Inflammation in Depression: Implications for Phenomenology, Pathophysiology and Treatment. In: Halaris, A., Leonard, B. E. (eds): Inflammation in Psychiatry. Mod Trends Pharmacopsychiatry. Basel, Karger, 2013, vol 28, pp. 33–48.
  • Ross, B. M. (2009). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and anxiety disorders. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 81:309–12.
  • Ross, B. M., Seguin, J. and Sieswerda, L. E. (2007). Omega-3 fatty acids as treatments for mental illness: which disorder and which fatty acid? Lipids Health Dis. 6:21.
  • Ruusunen, A., Lehto, S. M., Tolmunen, T., Mursu, J., Kaplan, G. A. and Voutilainen, S. (2010). Coffee, tea and caffeine intake and the risk of severe depression in middle-aged Finnish men: the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study. Public health Nutr. 13:1215–1220.
  • Sanacora, G. (2010). Cortical inhibition, gamma-aminobutyric acid, and major depression: there is plenty of smoke but is there fire? Biol. Psychiatry. 67:397–398.
  • Shelton, R. C. (2007). The molecular neurobiology of depression. Psychiatr Clin. North Am. 30:1–11.
  • Shelton R. C., Olawale Osuntokun A., Heinloth N. and Corya S. A. (2009) Therapeutic Options for Treatment-Resistant Depression. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. (2009). 63:S5–S21.
  • Shim, R. S., Baltrus, P., Ye, J. and Rust, G. (2011). Prevalence, treatment, and control of depressive symptoms in the United States: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 2005–2008. J. Am. Board Fam. Med. 24(1):33–38.
  • Siegel, S. and Sanacora, G. (2012). The roles of glutamate receptors across major neurological and psychiatric disorders. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 100:653–655.
  • Silvers, K. M., Woolley, C. C., Hamilton, F. C., Watts, P. M. and Watson, R. A. (2005). Randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial of fish oil in the treatment of depression. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 72:211–8.
  • Sontrop, J. and Campbell, M. K. (2006). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and depression: a review of the evidence and a methodological critique. Prev. Med. 42:4–13.
  • StahL, L. A., Begg, D. P., Weisinger, R. S. and Sinclair, A. J. (2008). The role of omega-3 fatty acids in mood disorders. Curr. Opin. Investig. Drugs. 9:57–64.
  • Stoll, A. L., Severus, W. E., Freeman, M. P., Rueter, S., Zboyan, H. F., Diamond, E., Cress, K. K. and Marangell, L. B. 1999. Omega 3 Fatty Acids and Bi-Polar Disorder. A Preliminary Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 56:407–412.
  • Strom, M., Mortensen, E. L., Halldorsson, T. I., Thorsdottir, I. and Olsen, S. F. (2009). Fish and long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intakes during pregnancy and risk of postpartum depression: a prospective study based on a large national birth cohort. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 90:149–55.
  • Su, K. P. (2008). Mind-body interface: the role of n-3 fatty acids in psychoneuroimmunology, somatic presentation, and medical illness comorbidity of depression. Asia Pac.J. Clin. Nutr. 17 Suppl 1:151–157.
  • Su, K. P. (2009). Biological mechanism of antidepressant effect of omega-3 fatty acids: how does fish oil act as a ‘mind-body interface’? Neurosignals. 17:144–152.
  • Su, K.-P., Huang, S.-Y., Chiu, C.-C. and Shen, W. W. (2003). Omega 3 Fatty Acids in Major Depressive Disorder. A Preliminary Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacology. 13:267–271.
  • SuareZ, E., Krishnan, R. and Lewis, J. (2003). The Relation of Severity of Depressive Symptoms to Monocyte-Associated Proinflammatory Cytokines and Chemokines in Apparently Healthy Men. Psychosom. Med. 65:362–368.
  • Sublette, M. E., Hibbeln, J. R., Galfalvey, H., Oquendo, M. A. and Mann, J. J. (2006). Omega-3 polyunsaturated essential fatty acid status as a predictor of future suicide risk. Am. J. Psychiatry. 163:1100–1102.
  • Sullivan, P., Neale, M. and Kendler, K. S. (2000). Genetic Epidemiology of Major Depression: Review and Meta-Analysis. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1552–1562.
  • Taylor, A. and Kim-Cohen, J. (2007). Meta-analysis of gene–environment: interactions in developmental psychopathology. Dev. Psychopathol. 19:1029–1037.
  • Thapari, A. and Mcguffin, P. (1996). Genetic influences on life events in childhood. Psychol. Med. 26:813–820.
  • The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Ed. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association Press; 1994.
  • Thomas, R. and Peterson, D. (2008). Even Neural Stem Cells Get the Blues: Evidence for a Molecular Link Between Modulation of Adult Neurogenesis and Depression. Gene Expression. 14:183–193.
  • Tiemeier, H., Van Tuijl, H. R., HofmaN, A., Kiliaan, A. J. and Breteler, M. (2003). Plasma fatty acid composition and depression are associated in the elderly: the Rotterdam Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 78:40–6.
  • Timonen, M., Horrobin, D., Jokelainen, J., Laitinen, J., Herva, A. and Rasanen, P. (2004). Fish consumption and depression: the Northern Finland 1966 birth cohort study. J. Affect. Disord. 82:447–52.
  • Uher, R. (2008). The implications of gene-environment interactions in depression: will cause inform cure? Mol. Psychiatry. 13:1070–8.
  • Vaidyanathan, V. V., Raja Rao, K. V. and Sastry, P. S. (1994). Regulation of diacylglycerol kinase in rat brain membranes by docosahexaenoic acid. Neurosci. Lett. 179:171–174.
  • World Health Organisation (WHO), Mental health, Depression, viewed April 2010 http://www.who.int/mental_health/management/depression/definition/en/
  • World Health Organisation (WHO) (2012). Fact Sheet No. 369 October 2012
  • Yehuda, S., Rabinovitz, S. and Mostofsky, D. (2005). Essential fatty acids and the brain: from infancy to aging. Neurobiol. Aging. 26:S98–S102.
  • Young, C. and Martin, A. 2003. Omega-3 fatty acids in mood disorders: an overview. Rev. Bras Psiquiatr. 25:184–187.
  • Zimmer, L., Delion-Vancassel, S., Durand, G., Guilloteau, D., Bodard, S., Besnard, J.-C. and Chalon, S. (2000). Modification of dopamine transmission in the nucleus accumbens of rats deficient in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. J. Lipid Res. 41:32–40.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.