Weight of Evidence Evaluation of Potential Human Cancer Risks from Exposure to Polychlorinated Biphenyls: An Update Based on Studies Published Since 2003

References

• Adami, H.O., Lipworth, L., Titus-Ernstoff, L., Hsieh, C.C., Hanberg, A., Ahlborg, U., Baron, J., and Trichopoulos, D. (1995). Organochlorine compounds and estrogen-related cancers in women. Cancer Causes Control 6:551–566.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). (1999). Toxicological profile for polychlorinated biphenyls. US Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA.
   Google Scholar
• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). (2000). Toxicological profile for polychlorinated biphenyls.. US Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA.
   Google Scholar
• Agundez, J.A. (2004). Cytochrome P450 gene polymorphism and cancer. Curr. Drug Metab. 5(1):211–224.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Baris, D., Kwak, L.W., Rothman, N., Wilson, W., Manns, A., Tarone, R.E., and Hartge, P. (2000). Blood levels of organochlorines before and after chemotherapy among non-Hodgkin's lymphoma patients. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 9(2):193–197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertazzi, P.A., Zocchetti, C., Guercilena, S., Della Foglia, M., Pesatori, A., and Riboldi, L. (1981). Mortality study of male and female workers exposed to PCBs. Presented at the International Symposium on Prevention of Occupational Cancer, Geneva, 21 April 1981.
   Google Scholar
• Bertazzi, P.A., Riboldi, L., Pesatori, A., Radice, L., and Zocchetti, C. (1987). Cancer mortality of capacitor manufacturing workers. Am. J. Ind. Med. 11:165–176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolton, J.L. (2002). Quinoids, quinoid radicals, and phenoxyl radicals formed from estrogens and antiestrogens. Toxicology 177(1):55–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosetti, C., Negri, E., Fattore, E., and La Vecchia, C. (2003). Occupational exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and cancer risk. Eur. J. Cancer Preven. 12:251–255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, D.P., and Jones, M. (1981). Mortality and industrial hygiene study of workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls. Arch. Environ. Health 36:120–129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, D.P. (1987). Mortality of workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls: An update. Arch. Environ. Health 42:333–339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, J.F., and Lawton, R.W. (2001). Factors controlling the distribution and levels of PCBs after occupational exposure. In: PCBs: Recent advances in environmental toxicology and health effects. (eds. Robertson L. W., and Hansen L. G.). The University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, KY.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, J.F. Jr. (1994). Determination of PCB metabolic, excretion and accumulation rates for use as indicators of biological responses and relative risk. Environ. Sci. Technol. 28: 2295–2305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, J.F. Jr., Mayes, B.A., Silkworth, J.B., and Hamilton, S.B. (2007). PCB-modulated tumorigenesis in Sprague–Dawley rats: Correlation with mixed function oxidase (MFO) activities and superoxide (O2•−) formation potentials and implied mode of action. Tox. Sci. 98(2):375–394.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charles, L.E., Loomis, D., Shy, C.M., Newman, B., Millikan, R., Nylander-French, L.A., and Couper, D. (2003). Electromagnetic fields, polychlorinated biphenyls, and prostate cancer mortality in electric utility workers. Am. J. Epidemiol. 157(8):683–691.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cocco, P., Brennan, P., Ibba, A., de Sanjosé Llongueras, S., Maynadié, M., Nieters, A., Becker, N., Ennas, M.G., Tocco, M.G., and Boffetta, P. (2008). Plasma olychlorobiphenyl and organochlorine pesticide level and risk of major lymphoma subtypes. Occup. Environ. Med. 65(2):132–140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cosma, G., Crofts, F., Taioli, E., Toniolo, P., and Garte, S. (1993). Relationship between genotype and function of the human CYP1A1 gene. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health. 40(2–3):309–316.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Crofts, F., Taioli, E., Trachman, J., Cosma, G.N., Currie, D., Toniolo, P., and Garte, S.J. (1994). Functional significance of different human CYP1A1 genotypes. Carcinogenesis. 15(12):2961–2963.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daly, A.K. 2006. Significance of the minor cytochrome P450 3A isoforms. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 45(1):13–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demers, A., Ayotte, P., Brisson, J., Dodin, S., Robert, J., and Dewailly, E. (2000). Risk and aggressiveness of breast cancer in relation to plasma organochlorine concentrations. Cancer Epidemiol.Biomarkers Prev. 9:161–166.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Roos, A.J., Hartge, P., Lubin, J.H., Colt, J.S., Davis, S., Cerhan, J.R., Severson, R.K., Cozen, W., Patterson, D.G. Jr., Needham, L.L., and Rothman, N. (2005). Persistent organochlorine chemicals in plasma and risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Cancer Res. 65:11214–11226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Roos, A.J., Gold, L.S., Wang, S., Hartge, P., Cerhan, J.R., Cozen, W., Yeager, M., Chanock, S., Rothman, N., and Severson, R.K. (2006). Metabolic gene variants and risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 15(9):1647–1653.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeVita, V.T., Hellman, S., and Rosenberg, S.A. eds. (1993). Cancer: Principles and practice of oncology. J.R. Lippincott, Philadelphia.
   Google Scholar
• Dieckmann, K.P., Endsin, G., and Pichlmeier, U. (2001). How valid is the prenatal estrogen excess hypothesis of testicular germ cell cancer? A case control study on hormone-related factors. Eur. Urol. 40(6):677–683.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engel, L.S., Laden, F., Andersen, A., Strickland, P.T., Blair, A., Needham, L.L., Barr, D.B., Wolff, M.S., Helzlsouer, K., Hunter, D.J., Lan, Q., Cantor, K.P., Comstock, G.W., Brock, J.W., Bush, D., Hoover, R.N., and Rothman, N. (2007a). Polychlorinated biphenyl levels in peripheral blood and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: A report from three cohorts. Cancer Res. 67(11):5545–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engel, L.S., Lan, Q., and Rothman, N. (2007b). Polychlorinated biphenyls and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 16(3):373–376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2005). Guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Falck, F. Jr., Ricci, A. Jr., Wolff, M.S., Godbold, J., and Deckers, P. (1992). Pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyl residues in human breast lipids and their relation to breast cancer. Arch. Environ. Health. 47(2):143–146.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (1996). Guidelines for industry: Structure and content of clinical study reports. Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. International Conference on Harmonization of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use. ICH E3; http://www.fda.gov/Cber/gdlns/iche3.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Fukatsu, T., Hirokawa, Y., Araki, T., Hioki, T., Murata, T., Suzuki, H., Ichikawa, T., Tsukino, H., Qiu, D., Katoh, T., Sugimura, Y., Yatani, R., Shiraishi, T., and Watanabe, M. (2004). Genetic polymorphisms of hormone-related genes and prostate cancer risk in the Japanese population. Anticancer Res. 24(4):2431–2437.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gammon, M.D., Wolff, M.S., Neugut, A.I., Eng, S.M., Teitelbaum, S.L., Britton, J.A., Terry, M.B., Levin, B., Stellman, S.D., Kabat, G.C., Hatch, M., Senie, R., Berkowitz, G., Bradlow, H.L., Garbowski, G., Maffeo, C., Montalvan, P., Kemeny, M., Citron, M., Schnabel, F., Schuss, A., Hajdu, S., Vinceguerra, V., Niguidula, N., Ireland, K., and Santella, R.M. (2002). Environmental toxins and breast cancer on Long Island. II. Organochlorine compound levels in blood. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 11(8):686–697.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gammon, M.D., Wolff, M.S., Neugut, A.I., Terry, M.B., Britton, J.A., Greenebaum, E., Hibshoosh, H., Levin, B., Wang, Q., and Santella, R.M. (1996). Treatment for breast cancer and blood levels of chlorinated hydrocarbons. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 5(6):467–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golden, R., Doull, J., Waddell, W., and Mandel, J. (2003). Potential human cancer risks from exposure to PCBs: A tale of two evaluations. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 33(5):543–580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordis, L. (2000). Epidemiology (2nd ed). ed. Saunders W. B., Philadelphia.
   Google Scholar
• Gustavsson, P., and Hogstedt, C. (1997). A cohort study of Swedish capacitor manufacturing workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Amer. J. Ind. Med. 32:234–239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustavsson, P., Hogstedt, C., and Rappe, C. (1986). Short term mortality and cancer incidence in capacitor manufacturing workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Am. J. Ind. Med. 10:341–344.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardell, L., Van Bavel, B., Lindstrom, G., Carlberg, M., Eriksson, M., Dreifaldt, A.C., Wijkstrom, H., Starkhammar, H., Hallquist, A., and Kolmert, T. (2004). Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls in blood and the risk for testicular cancer. Int. J. Androl. 27(5):282–290.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hardell, L., Bavel, B., Lindstrom, G., Eriksson, M., and Carlberg, M. (2006b). In utero exposure to persistent organic pollutants in relation to testicular cancer risk. Int. J. Androl. 29(1):228–234.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hardell, L., van Bavel, B., Lindstrom, G., Carlberg, M., Dreifaldt, A.C., Wijkstrom, H., Starkhammar, H., Eriksson, M., Hallquist, A., and Kolmert, T. (2003). Increased concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls, hexachlorobenzene, and chlordanes in mothers of men with testicular cancer. Environ. Health Perspect. 111(7):930–934.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardell, L., Andersson, S.O., Carlberg, M., Bohr, L., van Bavel, B., Lindstrom, G., Bjornfoth, H., and Ginman, C. (2006a). Adipose tissue concentrations of persistent organic pollutants and the risk of prostate cancer. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 48(7):700–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardell, L., Bavel, B.M., Lindström, G., Fredrikson, M., Hagberg, H., Liljegren, G., Nordstrom, M., and Johansson, B. (1996). Higher concentrations of specific polychlorinated biphenyl congeners in adipose tissue from non-Hodgkin's lymphoma patients compared with controls without a malignant disease. Int. J. Oncol. 9:603–608.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardell, L., and Eriksson, L. (2004). Response: Increased concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls, hexachlorobenzenes, and chlordanes. Environ. Health Perspect. 112(1):A22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill, A.B. (1965). The environment and disease: Association or causation? Proc. R. Soc. Med. 58:295–300.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howsam, M., Grimalt, J.O., Guino, E., Navarro, M., Marti-Rague, J., Peinado, M.A., Capella, G., and Moreno, V. (2004). Organochlorine exposure and colorectal cancer risk. Environ. Health Perspect. 112(15):1460–1466.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howe, H.L., Wingo, P.A., Thun, M.J., Ries, L.A., Rosenberg, H.M., Feigal, E.G., and Edwards, B.K. (2001). Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer (1973 through 1998), featuring cancers with recent increasing trends. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 93(11):824–842.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoyer, A.P., Jorgensen, T., Brock, J.W., and Grandjean, P. (2000). Organochlorine exposure and breast cancer survival. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 53(3):323–330.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoyer, A.P., Jorgensen, T., Grandjean, P., and Hartvig, H.B. (2000). Repeated measurements of organochlorine exposure and breast cancer risk (Denmark). Cancer Causes Control. 11(2):177–184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsieh, C.C., Lambe, M., Trichopoulos, D., Ekbom, A., Akre, O., and Adami, H.O. (2002). Early life exposure to oestrogen and testicular cancer risk: Evidence against an aetiological hypothesis. Br. J. Cancer 86(8):1363–1364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunter, D.J., Hankinson, S.E., Laden, F., Colditz, G.A., Manson, J.E., Willett, W.C., Speizer, F.E., and Wolff, M.S. (1997). Plasma organochlorine levels and the risk of breast cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 337:1253–1258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). (2000). World Health Organization classification of tumours. Pathology and genetics of tumours of the digestivesSystem. World Health Organization, Lyon, France.
   Google Scholar
• International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). (1987). IARC monographs on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans. Supplement 7: Overall evaluations of carcinogenicity: An updating of IARC monographs volumes 1 to 42. World Health Organization, Lyon, France.
   Google Scholar
• International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS). (2002). Global assessment of the state-of-the-science of endocrine disruptors. World Health Organization, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS). (1999). Environmental Health Criteria 210. Principles for the assessment of risks to human health from exposure to chemicals. World Health Organization, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS). (1993). Environmental Health Criteria 140. Polychlorinated biphenyls and terphenyls (2nd ed). World Health Organization, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• International Program on Chemical Safety (IPCS). (2003). Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 55. Polychlorinated Biphenyls: Human Health Aspects. World Health Organization, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• Jacquet, M., Lambert, V., Baudoux, E., Muller, M., Kremers, P., and Gielen, J. (1996). Correlation between P450 CYP1A1 inducibility, MspI genotype and lung cancer incidence. Eur. J. Cancer. 32A(10):1701–1706.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Japanese Health, Labor and Welfare Ministry. 2002. Kanemi oil poisoning blamed on dioxins. Daily Yomiuri.
   Google Scholar
• Jefcoate, C.R., Liehr, J.G., Santen, R.J., Sutter, T.R., Yager, J.D., Yue, W., Santner, S.J., Tekmal, R., Demers, L., Pauley, R., Naftolin, F., Mor, G., and Berstein, L. (2000). Tissue-specific synthesis and oxidative metabolism of estrogens. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. Monogr. 27:95–112.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kalilani, L., and Atashili, J. (2006). Measuring additive interaction using odds ratios. Epidemiol. Perspect. Innov. 3:5–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Keller, G., Schally, A.V., Groot, K., Toller, G.L., Havt, A., Koster, F., Armatis, P., Halmos, G., Zarandi, M., Varga, J.L., and Engel, J.B. (2005). Effective treatment of experimental human non-Hodgkin's lymphomas with antagonists of growth hormone-releasing hormone. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A. 102(30):10628–10633.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerridge, I., Lincz, L., Scorgie, F., Hickey, D., Granter, N., and Spencer, A. (2002). Association between xenobiotic gene polymorphisms and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma risk. Br. J. Haematol. 118(2):477–481.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Key, T., and Reeves, G. (1994). Organochlorines in the environment and breast cancer. Br. Med. J. 308:1520–1521.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimbrough, R.D., Doemland, M.L., and LeVois, M.E. (1999). Mortality in male and female capacitor workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 41:161–171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimbrough, R.D., Doemland, M.L., and Mandell, J.S. (2003). A mortality update of male and female capacitor workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls. J. Occup.Environ. Med. 45(3):271–282.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiyohara, C., Hirohata, T., and Inutsuka, S. (1996). The relationship between aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase and polymorphisms of the CYP1A1 gene. Japan J. Cancer Res. 87(1):18–24.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Laden, F., Collman, G., Iwamoto, K., Alberg, A.J., Berkowitz, G.S., Freudenheim, J.L., Hankinson, S.E., Helzlsouer, K.J., Holford, T.R., Huang, H.Y., Moysich, K.B., Tessari, J.D., Wolff, M.S., Zheng, T., and Hunter, D.J. (2001). 1,1-Dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene and polychlorinated biphenyls and breast cancer: Combined analysis of five U.S. studies. J Natl. Cancer Inst. 93(10):768–776.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Laden, F., Ishibe, N., Hankinson, S.E., Wolff, M.S., Gertig, D.M., Hunter, D.J., and Kelsey, K.T. (2002). Polychlorinated biphenyls, cytochrome P450 1A1, and breast cancer risk in the Nurses' Health Study. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 11(12):1560–1565.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laden, F., and Hunter, D.J. (1998). Environmental risk factors and female breast cancer. Ann. Rev. Public Health. 19:101–123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laden, F., Hunter, D., and Cantor, K. (2000). Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and plasma levels of DDE and PCBs (abstract). Am. J. Epidemiol. 151:S23.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landi, M.T., Bergen, A.W., Baccarelli, A., Patterson, D.G. Jr., Grassman, J., Ter-Minassian, M., Mocarelli, P., Caporaso, N., Masten, S.A., Pesatori, A.C., Pittman, G.S., and Bell, D.A. (2005). CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 genotypes, haplotypes, and TCDD-induced gene expression in subjects from Seveso, Italy. Toxicology 207(2):191–202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawton, R.W., Brown, J.F. Jr., Ross, M.R., and Feingold, J. (1985a). Comparability and precision of serum PCB measurements. Arch. Environ. Health 49:29–37.
   Google Scholar
• Lawton, R.W., Ross, M.R., Feingold, J., and Brown, J.F., Jr. (1985b). Effects of PCB exposure on biochemical and hematological findings in capacitor workers. Environ. Health Persp. 60:165–184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, C., Hutson, J.R., Tzau, K., and Riddick, D.S. (2006). Regulation of constitutive mouse hepatic cytochromes P450 and growth hormone signaling components by 3-methylcholanthrene. Drug Metab. Dispos. 34:1530–1538.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, Y., Millikan, R.C., Bell, D.A., Cui, L., Tse, C.K., Newman, B., and Conway, K. (2004). Cigarette smoking, cytochrome P4501A1 polymorphisms, and breast cancer among African-American and white women. Breast Cancer Res. 6(4):R460–R473.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, Y., Millikan, R.C., Bell, D.A., Cui, L., Tse, C.K., Newman, B., and Conway, K. (2005). Polychlorinated biphenyls, cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) polymorphisms, and breast cancer risk among African American women and white women in North Carolina: A population-based case–control study. Breast Cancer Res. 7(1):R12–R18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liehr, J.G. (1997). Dual role of oestrogens as hormones and procarcinogens: Tumour initiation by metabolic activation of oestrogens. Eur. J. Cancer Prev. 6(1):3–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liehr, J.G. (1999). 4-hydroxylation of oestrogens as a marker for mammary tumours. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 27(2):318–323.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liehr, J.G. (2001). Genotoxicity of the steroidal oestrogens oestrone and oestradiol: Possible mechanism of uterine and mammary cancer development. Hum. Reprod. Update 7(3):273–281.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loomis, D., Browning, S.R., Schenck, A.P., Gregory, E., and Savitz, D.A. (1997). Cancer mortality among electric utility workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls. Occup. Environ. Med. 54:720–728.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucier, G.W., Nelson, K.G., Everson, R.B., Wong, T.K., Philpot, R.M., Tiernan, T., Taylor, M., and Sunahara, G.I. (1987). Placental markers of human exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and polychlorinated dibenzofurans. Environ. Health Perspect. 76:79–87.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mallin, K., McCann, K., D′Aloisio, A., Freels, S., Piorkowski, J., Dimos, J., Persky, V. (2004). Cohort mortality study of capacitor manufacturing workers, 1944–2000. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 46(6):565–576.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masson, L.F., Sharp, L., Cotton, S.C., and Little, J. (2005). Cytochrome P450 1A1 gene polymorphisms and risk of breast cancer: A HuGE review. Am. J. Epidemiol. 161(10):901–915.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mauras, N., Sabio, H., and Rogol, A.D. (1988). Neuroendocrine function in survivors of childhood acute lymphocytic leukemia and non-Hodgkins lymphoma: A study of pulsatile growth hormone and gonadotropin secretions. Am. J. Pediatr. Hematol. Oncol. 10(1):9–17.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mayes, B.A., McConnell, E.E., Neal, B.H., Brunner, M.J., Hamilton, S.B., Sullivan, T.M., Peters, A.C., Ryan, M.J., Toft, J.D., Singer, A.W., Brown, J.F. Jr, Menton, R.G., and Moore, J.A. (1998). Comparative carcinogenicity in Sprague–Dawley rats of the polychlorinated biphenyl mixtures Aroclors 1016, 1242, 1254, and 1260. Toxicol. Sci. 41(1):62–76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayes, B.A., Fish, K.M., Brown, J.F. Jr., and Silkworth, J.B. (1999). PCB tumorigenicity in rodents: How should it be measured? The Toxicologist. 48:338.
   Google Scholar
• Moysich, K.B., Shields, P.G., Freudenheim, J.L., Schisterman, E.F., Vena, J.E., Kostyniak, P., Greizerstein, H., Marshall, J.R., Graham, S., and Ambrosone, C.B. (1999). Polychlorinated biphenyls, cytochrome P4501A1 polymorphism, and postmenopausal breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 8(1):41–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murata, M., Watanabe, M., Yamanaka, M., Kubota, Y., Ito, H., Nagao, M., Katoh, T., Kamataki, T., Kawamura, J., Yatani, R., and Shiraishi, T. (2001). Genetic polymorphisms in cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A1, CYP1A2, CYP2E1, glutathione S-transferase (GST) M1 and GSTT1 and susceptibility to prostate cancer in the Japanese population. Cancer Lett. 165(2):171–177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Negri, E., Bosetti, C., Fattore, E., and La Vecchia, C. (2003). Environmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and breast cancer: A systematic review of the epidemiological evidence. Eur. J. Cancer Prev. 12(6):509–516.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholson, W.J., and Landrigan, P.J. (1994). Human health effects of polychlorinated biphenyls. In: Dioxins and health (ed. Schecter A.). Plenum Press, New York, pp. 487–524.
   Google Scholar
• Nicholson, W.J. (1987). Report to the Workers Compensation Board on occupational exposure to PCBs and various cancers. Human health effects and carcinogenic risk potential of PCBs. Ontario Ministry of Labour, Ottawa.
   Google Scholar
• Oakley, G.G., Devanaboyina, U., Robertson, L.W., and Gupta, R.C. (1996). Oxidative DNA damage induced by activation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): Implications for PCB-induced oxidative stress in breast cancer. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 9(8):1285–1292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavuk, M., Cerhan, J.R., Lynch, C.F., Kocan, A., Petrik, J., and Chovancova, J. (2003). Case–control study of PCBs, other organochlorines and breast cancer in Eastern Slovakia. J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 13(4):267–275.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pavuk, M., Cerhan, J.R., Lynch, C.F., Schecter, A., Petrik, J., Chovancova, J., and Kocan, A. (2004). Environmental exposure to PCBs and cancer incidence in eastern Slovakia. Chemosphere 54(10):1509–1520.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pereg, D., Dewailly, E., Poirier, G.G., and Ayotte, P. (2002). Environmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and placental CYP1A1 activity in Inuit women from northern Quebec. Environ. Health Perspect. 110(6):607–612.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prince, M.M., Hein, M.J., Ruder, A.M., Waters, M.A., Laber, P.A., and Whelan, E.A. (2006a). Update: Cohort mortality study of workers highly exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) during the manufacture of electrical capacitors, 1940–1998. Environ. Health 5:1–23.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Prince, M.M., Ruder, A.M., Hein, M.J., Waters, M.A., Whelan, E.A., Nilsen, N., Ward, E.M., Schnorr, T.M., Laber, P.A., and Davis-King, K.E. (2006b). Mortality and exposure response among 14,458 electrical capacitor manufacturing workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Environ. Health Perspect. 114(10):1508–1514.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quintana, P.J., Delfino, R.J., Korrick, S., Ziogas, A., Kutz, F.W., Jones, E.L., Laden, F., and Garshick, E. (2004). Adipose tissue levels of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls and risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Environ. Health Perspect. 112(8):854–861.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raunio, H., Hakkola, J., and Pelkonen, O. (2005). Regulation of CYP3A genes in the human respiratory tract. Chem. Biol. Interact. 151:53–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ritchie, J.M., Vial, S.L., Fuortes, L.J., Guo, H., Reedy, V.E., and Smith, E.M. (2003). Organochlorines and risk of prostate cancer. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 45(7):692–702.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ritchie, J.M., Vial, S.L., Fuortes, L.J., Robertson, L.W., Guo, H., Reedy, V.E., and Smith, E.M. (2005). Comparison of proposed frameworks for grouping polychlorinated biphenyl congener data applied to a case–control pilot study of prostate cancer. Environ. Res. 98(1):104–113.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothman, N., Cantor, K.P., Blair, A., Bush, D., Brock, J.W., Helzlsouer, K., Zahm, S.H., Needham, L.L., Pearson, G.R., Hoover, R.N., Comstock, G.W., and Strickland, P.T. (1997). A nested case–control study of non-Hodgkin lymphoma and serum organochlorine residues. Lancet 350(9073):240–244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothman, K.J., and Greenland, S. (1998). Modern epidemiology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia.
   Google Scholar
• Rubin, C.H., Lanier, A., Kieszak, S., Brock, J.W., Koller, K.R., Strosnider, H., Needham, L., Zahm, S., and Harpster, A. (2006). Breast cancer among Alaska Native women potentially exposed to environmental organochlorine chemicals. Int. J. Circumpolar Health. 65(1):18–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruder, A.M., Hein, M.J., Nilsen, N., Waters, M.A., Laber, P., Davis-King, K., Prince, M.M., and Whelan, E. (2006). Mortality among workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in an electrical capacitor manufacturing plant in Indiana: an update. Environ. Health Perspect. 114(1):18–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rusiecki, J.A., Matthews, A., Sturgeon, S., Sinha, R., Pellizzari, E., Zheng, T., and Baris, D. (2005). A correlation study of organochlorine levels in serum, breast adipose tissue, and gluteal adipose tissue among breast cancer cases in India. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 14(5):1113–1124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schilderman, P.A., Maas, L.M., Pachen, D.M., de Kok, T.M., Kleinjans, J.C., and van Schooten, F.J. (2000). Induction of DNA adducts by several polychlorinated biphenyls. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 36(2):79–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schottenfeld, D., and Fraumeni, J.F. (1996). Cancer epidemiology and prevention. New York, Oxford University Press, pp. 813–840.
   Google Scholar
• Schwarz, D., Kisselev, P., Cascorbi, I., Schunck, W.H., and Roots, I. (2001). Differential metabolism of benzo[a]pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol by human CYP1A1 variants. Carcinogenesis 22(3):453–459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaban, Z., Soliman, M., El-Shazly, S., El-Bohi, K., Abdelazeez, A., Kehelo, K., Kim, H.S., Muzandu, K., Ishizuka, M., Kazusaka, A., and Fujita, S. (2005). AhR and PPAR alpha antagonistic effects on CYP2B and CYP3A, and additive inhibitory effects on CYP2C11. Xenobiotica 35:51–68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharpe, R.M. (2003). The ‘oestrogen hypothesis’—Where do we stand now? Int. J. Androl. 26(1):2–15.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sharpe, R.M., and Skakkebaek, N.E. (1993). Are oestrogens involved in falling sperm counts and disorders of the male reproductive tract? Lancet 341(8857):1392–1395.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shields, P.G. (2006). Understanding population and individual risk assessment: The case of polychlorinated biphenyls. Cancer Epid. Biomark. Prev. 15(5):830–839.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silkworth, J.B., Koganti, A., Illouz, K., Possolo, A., Zhao, M., and Hamilton, S.B. (2005). Comparison of TCDD and PCB CYP1A induction sensitivities in fresh hepatocytes from human donors, Sprague–Dawley rats, and rhesus monkeys and HepG2 cells. Toxicol. Sci. 87(2):508–519.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinks, T., Steele, G., Smith, A.B., Watkins, K., and Shults, R.A. (1992). Mortality among workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls. Am. J. Epidemiol. 136:389–398.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silver, S.R., Whelan, E.A., Deddens, J.A., Steenland, N.K., Hopf, N.B., Waters, M.A., Ruder, A.M., Prince, M.M., Yong, L.C., Hein, M.J., Ward, E.M. (2008). Occupational Exposure to Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Risk of Breast Cancer. Environ. Health Perspec. doi: 10.1289/ehp.11774 (available at http://dx.doi.org/) Online 26 September 2008 ehponline.org
   Google Scholar
• Skakkebaek, N.E., Rajpert-De Meyts, E., and Main, K.M. (2001). Testicular dysgenesis syndrome: an increasingly common developmental disorder with environmental aspects. Hum. Reprod. 16(5):972–978.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skibola, C.F., Lightfoot, T., Agana, L., Smith, A., Rollinson, S., Kao, A., Adamson, P., Morgan, G.J., Smith, M.T., and Roman, E. (2005). Polymorphisms in cytochrome P450 17A1 and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Br. J. Haematol. 129(5):618–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, G.B., Harper, P.A., Wong, J.M., Lam, M.S., Reid, K.R., Petsikas, D., and Massey, T.E. (2001). Human lung microsomal cytochrome P4501A1 (CYP1A1) activities: impact of smoking status and CYP1A1, aryl hydrocarbon receptor, and glutathione S-transferase M1 genetic polymorphisms. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 10(8):839–853.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strohsnitter, W.C., Noller, K.L., Hoover, R.N., Robboy, S.J., Palmer, J.R., Titus-Ernstoff, L., Kaufman, R.H., Adam, E., Herbst, A.L., and Hatch, E.E. (2001). Cancer risk in men exposed in utero to diethylstilbestrol. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 93(7):545–551.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Soucek, P., Sarmanová, J., Kristensen, V.N., Apltauerová, M., and Gut, I. (2002). Genetic polymorphisms of biotransformation enzymes in patients with Hodgkin's and non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health. 75(Suppl):S86–S92.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki, K., Matsui, H., Nakazato, H., Koike, H., Okugi, H., Hasumi, M., Ohtake, N., Nakata, S., Takei, T., Hatori, M., Ito, K., and Yamanaka, H. (2003). Association of the genetic polymorphism in cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A1 with risk of familial prostate cancer in a Japanese population: A case–control study. Cancer Lett. 195(2):177–183.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka, Y., Sasaki, M., Kaneuchi, M., Shiina, H., Igawa, M., and Dahiya, R. (2002). Polymorphisms of the CYP1B1 gene have higher risk for prostate cancer. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 296(4):820–826.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, P.R. (1988). The relation of occupational polychlorinated biphenyl exposure to cancer and total mortality. National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD.
   Google Scholar
• Tironi, A., Pesatori, A., Consonni, D., Zocchetti, C., and Bertazzi, P.A. (1996). The mortality of female workers exposed to PCBs. Epidemiologia e Prevenzione 20:200–202.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tryphonas, H. (1994). Immunotoxicity of polychlorinated biphenyls: Present status and future considerations. Exp. Clin. Immunogenet. 11(2–3):149–162.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tsai, P.C., Ko, Y.C., Huang, W., Liu, H.S., and Guo, Y.L. (2007). Increased liver and lupus mortalities in 24-year follow-up of the Taiwanese people highly exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls and dibenzofurans. Sci. Total Environ. 374(2–3):216–222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van den Berg, M., Birnbaum, L.S., Denison, M., DeVito, M., Farland, W., Feeley, M., Fiedler, H., Hakanson, H., Hanberg, A., Haws, L., Rose, M., Safe, S., Schrenk, D., Tohyama, C., Tritscher, A., Tuomisto, J., Tysklind, M., Walker, N., Perterson, R.E. (2006). The 2005 World Health Organization reevaluation of human and mammalian toxic equivalency factors for dioxins and dioxin-like compounds. Toxicol. Sci. 93(2):223–241.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Plas, S.A., de Jongh, J., Faassen-Peters, M., Scheu, G., van den Berg, M., and Brouwer, A. (1998). Toxicokinetics of an environmentally relevant mixture of dioxin-like PHAHs with or without a non-dioxin-like PCB in a semi-chronic exposure study in female Sprague Dawley rats. Chemosphere 37(9–12):1941–1955.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vineis, P., and Zahm, S.H. (1988). Immunosuppressive effects of dioxin in the development of Kaposi's sarcoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Lancet. 1(8575–6):55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward, E.M., Ruder, A.M., Suruda, A., Smith, A.B., Halperin, W., Fessler, C.A., and Zahm, S.H. (1994). Cancer mortality patterns among female and male workers employed in a cable manufacturing plant during World War II. J. Occup. Med. 36(8):860–866.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Waxman, D.J., and O′Connor, C. (2006). Growth hormone regulation of sex-dependent liver gene expression. Mol. Endocrinol. 20(11):2613–2629.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whysner, J., Montandon, F., McClain, R.M., Downing, J., Verna, L.K., Steward, R.E. 3rd, and Williams, G.M. (1998). Absence of DNA adduct formation by phenobarbital, polychlorinated biphenyls, and chlordane in mouse liver using the 32P-postlabeling assay. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 148(1):14–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wollf, M.S., Fishbein, A., Thornton, J., Rice, C., Lilis, R., and Selikoff, I.J. (1982). Body burden of polychlorinated biphenyls among persons employed in capacitor manufacturing. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ Health 49:199–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolff, M.S., Zeleniuch-Jacquotte, A., Dubin, N., and Toniolo, P. (2000). Risk of breast cancer and organochlorine exposure. Cancer Epidemiol.Biomarkers Prev. 9:271–277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolff, M.S., Camann, D., Gammon, M., and Stellman, S.D. (1997). Proposed PCB congener groupings for epidemiological studies. Environ. Health Perspect. 105(1):13–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woolcott, C.G., Aronson, K.J., Hanna, W.M., SenGupta, S.K., McCready, D.R., Sterns, E.E., and Miller, A.B. (2001). Organochlorines and breast cancer risk by receptor status, tumor size, and grade (Canada). Cancer Causes Control 12(5):395–404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (WHO). (2001). Chlorinated naphthalenes. Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 34, Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• Wormhoudt, L.W., Commandeur, J.N., and Vermeulen, N.P. (1999). Genetic polymorphisms of human N-acetyltransferase, cytochrome P450, glutathione-S-transferase, and epoxide hydrolase enzymes: relevance to xenobiotic metabolism and toxicity. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 29(1):59–124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, J., Qian, L.X., Wu, H.F., Xu, Z.Q., Sui, Y.G., Wang, X.R., and Zhang, W. (2006). Genetic polymorphisms in the cytochrome P450 1A1 and 2E1 genes, smoking, drinking and prostate cancer susceptibility: A case–control study in a Han nationality population in Southern China. Int. J. Urol. 13(6):773–780.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yao, J., Li, Y., Chang, M., Wu, H., Yang, X., Goodman, J.E., Liu, X., Liu, H., Mesecar, A.D., Van Breemen, R.B., Yager, J.D., and Bolton, J.L. (2003). Catechol estrogen 4-hydroxyequilenin is a substrate and an inhibitor of catechol-O-methyltransferase. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 16(5):668–675.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yassi, A., Tate, R.B., and Routledge, M. (2003). Cancer incidence and mortality in workers employed at a transformer manufacturing plant: Update to a cohort study. Am. J. Ind. Med. 44(1):58–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yassi, A., Tate, R., and Fish, D. (1994). Cancer mortality in workers employed at a transformer manufacturing plant. Am. J. Ind. Med. 25:425–437.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Y., Wise, J.P., Holford, T.R., Xie, H., Boyle, P., Zahm, S.H., Rusiecki, J., Zou, K., Zhang, B., Zhu, Y., Owens, P.H., and Zheng, T. (2004). Serum polychlorinated biphenyls, cytochrome P-450 1A1 polymorphisms, and risk of breast cancer in Connecticut women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 160(12):1177–1183.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Z.Y., Fasco, M.J., Huang, L., Guengerich, F.P., and Kaminsky, L.S. (1996). Characterization of purified human recombinant cytochrome P4501A1-Ile462 and -Val462: Assessment of a role for the rare allele in carcinogenesis. Cancer Res. 56(17):3926–3933.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng, T., Holford, T.R., Mayne, S.T., Tessari, J., Ward, B., Carter, D., Owens, P.H., Boyle, P., Dubrow, R., Archibeque-Engle, S., Dawood, O., and Zahm, S.H. (2000). Risk of female breast cancer associated with serum polychlorinated biphenyls and 1,1-dichloro-2,2′-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene. Cancer Epid. Biomark. Prevent. 9:167–174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar