810
Views
42
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Risk assessment of chemical carcinogens and thresholds

Pages 449-461 | Received 27 Jun 2008, Accepted 10 Feb 2009, Published online: 30 Apr 2009

References

  • American Conference of Governmental Hygenist. (2004). TLVs and BEIs. Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices. ACGIH, Cincinnaty, USA.
  • American Industrial Health Council. (1981). Annual newsletter.
  • Aldridge, W.N. (1995). Defining thresholds in occupational and environmental toxicity. Toxicol. Lett. 77: 109–118.
  • Bernheim, N.J., and Falk, H. (1981). Chemical, physical and genetic factors interfering with DNA repair—A review. J. Am. Coll. Toxicol. 2: 23–54.
  • Bitsch, A., Deubelbeiss, C., and Greiner, A. (1999). c-fos gene expression in rat liver is induced by phenobarbital. Cancer Lett. 135: 215–122.
  • Bitsch, A., Hadjiolov, N., Klöhn, P.C., Bergmann, O., Zwirner-Baier, I., and Neumann, H.G. (2000). Dose-response of early effects related to tumor promotion of 2-acetylaminofluorene. Toxicol. Sci. 55: 44–51.
  • Bridges, B.A., and Stamper, J.G. (1975). Hypothetical Dose-response curves for chronic exposures to mutagens or carcinogens subject to simple enzymatic detoxification in the mammalian body. Mutat. Res. 33:87–91.
  • Broccardo, C.J., Billings, R.E., Chubb, L.S., Andersen, M.E., and Hannemann, W.H. (2004). Single Cell analysis of switch-like induction of CYP1A1 in liver cell lines. Toxicol. Sci. 78:287–294.
  • Burnet, F.M. (1976). Mutation, somatische Mutation und Krankheit beim Menschen. Naturw. Rdsch. 29: 305–311.
  • Butterworth, B.E., and Bogdanffy, M.S. (1999). A comprehensive approach for integration of toxicity and cancer risk assessment. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 29:23–36.
  • Claus, G. (1974). Environmental carcinogenesis; Is there a threshold of exposure. Clin. Toxicol. 7: 497–508.
  • Claus, G., Krisko, I., and Bolander, K. (1974). Chemical carcinogens in the environment and the human diet: Can a threshold be established. Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 12: 737–746.
  • Clayson, D.B. (1978). Overview, myth and speculation. J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. 2:1–8.
  • Cox, C. (1987). Threshold dose-response models in toxicology. Biometrics 43: 511–523.
  • Crump, K.S., Hoel, D.G., Langley, C.H., and Peto, R. (1976). Fundamental carcinogenic processes and their implications for low dose risk assessment. Cancer Res. 36: 2973–2979.
  • Diaz Gomez, M.I., Swann, P.F., and Magee, P. (1977). The absorption and metabolism in rats of small oral doses of dimethylnitrosoamine. Biochem. J. 164: 497–500.
  • Druckrey, H. (1943). Quantitative Grundlagen der Krebserzeugung. Klin. Wochenschrift 22: 532–534.
  • Druckrey, H. (1959). Pharmacological approach to carcinogenesis. In: Ciba Foundation Symposium on Carcinogenesis, Mechanisms of Action, Wolstenholm G.E.W., O´Connor M (Hrsg.), L&A Churchill Ltd. Gloucester, Great Britain, pp. 110–130.
  • Druckrey, H., Schmähl. D., Dischler, W., and Schildbach, A. (1962). Quantitative Analyse der experimentellen Krebserzeugung. Naturwissenschaften 49: 217–228.
  • Dunn, B.P. (1983). Wide range linear dose-response curve for DNA binding of orally administered benzo(a)pyrene in mice. Cancer Res. 43:2654–2658.
  • Edler, L., Porti, C.J., and Kopp-Schneider, A. (1994). Zur Existenz von Schwellenwerten: Wissenschaftliche Methode oder statistisches Artefakt in der Risikoabschätzung. Zbl. Arbeitsmed. 44: 16–21.
  • EU-Bericht v. 26.10. (2000). First Report on the Harmonisation of Risk Assessment Procedures. 2. Appendices.
  • Farmer, J.H., Kodell, R.L., Greenman, D.L., and Shaw, G.W. (1979). Dose and time response models for the incidence of bladder and liver neoplasms in mice fed 2-acetylaminofluorene continuously. J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. 3: 55–68.
  • Hanahan, D., and Weinberg, R.A. (2000). The hallmarks of cancer. Cell 100: 57–70.
  • Hart, R.W., and Frame, L.T. (1996). Toxicological defense mechanism and how they may affect the nature of dose-response relationships. Belle Newslett. 5:1–16.
  • Haseman, J.K. (2003). An alternative perspective: a critical evaluation of the Waddell threshold extrapolation model in chemical carcinogenesis. Toxicol. Pathol. 31: 712–713.
  • HBM-Kommission, Stellungnahme. (2003). Verwendung von Hämoglo binaddukten als Biomarker für das Monitoring von Belastungen und Beanspruchungen durch gentoxische Stoffe. Bundesgesund. Gesundheits. Gesundheitsschutz. 46: 918–922.
  • Hecker, E., and Rippman, F. (1988). Quantitative determination of experimental threshold doses (no-effect levels) for environmental promoters in the initiation/promotion protocol on skin of NRMI mice. Naunyn-Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol. 338(Suppl. R11).
  • Henschler, D. (1973a). Veränderungen der Umwelt—Toxikologische Probleme. Angew. Chem. 85: 317–326.
  • Henschler, D. (1973b), Toxicological problems relating to changes in the environment. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 12: 274–282.
  • Henschler, D. (1974). New approaches to a definition of threshold values for irreversible effects. Arch. Toxicol. 32: 63–67.
  • Hooper, N.K., Harris, R.H., and Ames, B.N. (1979). Letters. Chemical carcinogens. Science 203: 602–603.
  • Ito, N., Imaida, K., Hasegawa, R., and Tsuda, H. (1988) Enhancing effect of various hepatocarcinogens on induction of preneoplastic glutathione S-transferase placental form positive foci in rats—An approach for a new medium-term bioassay system. Carcinogenesis 9: 387–394.
  • Jackson, C.D., Weis, C., and Shellenberger, T.E. (1980). Tissue binding of 2-acetylaminofluorene in BALB/c and C57Bl/6 mice during chronic oral administration. Chem. Biol. Interact. 32: 63–81.
  • Kisch-Volders, M., Aaredema, M., and Elhajoiji, A. (2000). Concepts of thresholds in mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. Mutat. Res. 464:3–11.
  • Kitano, M., Ichihara, T., Matsuda, T., Wanibuchi, H., Tamano, S., Hagiwara, A., Imaoka, S., Funae, Y., Shirai, T., and Fukushoma, S. (1998). Presence of a threshold for promoting effects of phenobarbital on diethylnitrosamine-induced hepatic foci in the rat. Carcinogenesis 19: 1475–1480.
  • Klöhn, P.C., Bitsch, A., and Neumann, H.G. (1998). Mitochondrial permeability transition is altered in early stages of carcinogenesis of 2-acetylaminofluorene. Carcinogenesis 19: 1185–1190.
  • Koelle, G.B. (1977). The zero-tolerance concept. Perspect. Biol. Med. 20: 507–509.
  • Kunz, H.W., Tennekes, H.A., Port, R.E., Schwartz, M., Lorke, D., and Schaude, O. (1983). Quantitative aspects of chemical carcinogenesis and tumor promotion in liver. Environ. Health Perspect. 50: 113–122.
  • Lewalter, J., and Neumann, H.G. (1998). Background exposure of persons not occupationaly exposed to chemicals, in: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Greim, H., Lehnert, G., (edts.), Biological exposure values for occupational toxicants and carcinogens, Vol. 3. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, pp. 3–34.
  • Lutz, W.K., and Fekete, T. (1996). Endogenous and exogenous factors in carcinogenesis: Limits to cancer prevention. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 68: 120–125.
  • Lutz, W.K., and Gaylor, D. (1996). Significance of DNA adducts at low dose: Shortening the time to spontaneous tumor occurrence. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 23: 29–34.
  • Lutz, W.K., and Kopp-Schneider, A. (1999). Threshold dose response for tumor induction by genotoxic carcinogens modeled via cell-cycle delay. Toxicol. Sci. 49: 110–115.
  • Lutz, W.K., Beland, P.E., Candrian, R., Fekete, T., and Fischer, W.H. (1996). Dose-time response in mouse skin tumor induction by 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene and 12-O-tetradecanoyl-phorbol 13-acetate. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 23: 44–48.
  • Lutz, W.K., and Schlatter, C. (1978). Extrapolation of carcinogenicity data to low doses with a dose–response study of the binding of benzo(a)pyrene to rat liver DNA. Arch. Toxicol. Suppl 1: 369–371.
  • MAK-und BAT-Werte-Liste. (2004). Senatskommission zur Prüfung gesundheitsschädlicher Arbeitsstoffe, DFG. Wiley-Verlag, Weinheim
  • Mantel, N., and Schneiderman, M.A. (1975). Estimating “safe” levels, A hazardous undertaking. Cancer Res. 35: 1379–1386.
  • Mastromatteo, E. (1981). On the concept of threshold. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 42: 763–770.
  • Maugh, T.H. II. (1978). Chemical carcinogens: How dangerous are low doses. Science 202: 37–41.
  • Miller, J.A., and Miller, E.C. (1971). Chemical carcinogenesis: Mechanisms and approaches to its control. Guest editorial. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 47: V–XIV.
  • Montesano, R. (1981). Alkylation of DNA and tissue specificity in nitrosamne carcinogenesis. J. Supramol. Structure Cell.Biochem. 17: 259–273.
  • Neumann, H.G. (1973). Ultimale elektrophile Carcinogene und nukleophile Reaktanten der Zelle. Vortrag: 14, Frühjahrstagung der DGPT, 18.–21.3. Mainz.
  • Neumann, H.G. (1974). Ultimate electrophillic carcinogens and cellular nucleophilic reactants. Arch. Toxicol. 32: 27–38.
  • Neumann, H.G., Baur, H., and Wirsing, R. (1980). Dose-response relationship in the primary lesion of strong electrophilic carcinogens. In: Quantitative aspects of risk assessment in chemical carcinogenesis. Arch. Toxicol. Suppl. 3: 69–77, discussion 145–147.
  • Oesch, F., Herrero, M.E., Hengstler, J.G., Lohmann, M., and Arand, M. (2000). Metabolic detoxification; implications for thresholds. Toxicol. Pathol. 28: 382–387.
  • Park, C.N., and Snee, E.D. (1983). Quantitative risk assessment: State of the art for carcinogenesis. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 3: 320–333.
  • Paynter, O.E., Burin, G.J., Jaeger, R.B., and Gregorio, C.A. (1988). Goitrogens and thyroid follicular cell neoplasia: Evidence for a threshold process. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 8: 102–119.
  • Pitot, H.C., and Campbell, H.A. (1988). Quantitative studies on multistage hepatocarcinogenesis in the rat. In: Langenbach, R. et al. (edts.), Tumor promoters: Biological approaches for mechanistic studies and assay systems. Raven Press, New York, pp. 79–95
  • Poirier, M.C., Fullerton, N.F., Kinouchi, T., Smith, B.A., and Beland, F.A. (1991). Comparison between DNA adduct formation and tumorigenicity in livers and bladders of mice chronically fed 2-acetylaminofluorene. Carcinogenesis 12: 895–900.
  • Pong, R.S., and Wogan, G.N. (1970). Time course and dose-response characteristics of aflatoxin B1 Effects on rat liver DNA polymerase and ultrastructure. Cancer Res. 30: 294–304.
  • Ramsey, J.C., and Gehring, P.J. (1980). Application of pharmacokinetic principles in practice. Fed. Proc. 39: 60–65.
  • Risiko Kommission. (2003). Ad Hoc Kommission“Neuordnung der Verfahren und Strukturen zur Risikobewertung und Standardsetzung im gesundheitlichen Umweltschutz in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland.” Abschlussbericht 2003.
  • Roach, S.A., and Rappaport, S.M. (1990). But they are not thresholds: A critical analysis of the documentation of threshold limit values. Am. J. Ind. Med. 17: 727–753.
  • Rozman, K.K. (2003). Thresholds in carcinogenicity in EDO1 study. Toxicol. Sci. 75: 224–225.
  • Schaeffer, D. (1983). Thresholds for carcinogenesis and their significance to medical practice. Med. Hypoth. 10: 175–184.
  • Schneiderman, M.A., and Brown, C.C. (1978). Estimating cancer risk to a population. Environ. Health Perspect. 22: 115–124.
  • Schulte-Hermann, R., Grassl-Kraupp, B., and Bursch, W. (2000). Dose-response and threshold effects in cytotoxicity and apoptosis. Mutat. Res. 464: 13–18.
  • Science and Judgment. (1994). National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
  • Scott-Appleton, B., Goetchius, M.P., and Campbell, T.C. (1982). Linear dose-response curve for the hepatic macromolecular binding of aflatoxin B1 in rats at very low exposures. Cancer Res. 42: 3659–3662.
  • Seiler, J.P. (1977). Apparent and real thresholds. Progress in genetic toxicology. Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam, pp. 233–238.
  • Stockinger, H.E. (1972). Concepts of thresholds in standards setting. Arch. Environ. Health 25: 153–157.
  • Swarts, J.B., Riddlough, C.R., and Epstein, S.S. (1982). Analysis of carcinogenic dose-response relations with dichotomous data: Implications for carcinogenic risk assessment. Teratogen. Carcinogen. Mutagen. 2:179–204.
  • Travis, C.C., Zeng, C., and Nicholas, J. (1996). Biological model of ED01 hepatocarcinogenesis. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 140: 19–29.
  • Tritscher, A.M., Goldstein, J.A., Portier, C.J., McCoy, Z., Clark, G.C., and Lucier, G.W. (1992). Dose response relationships for chronic exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in a rat tumor promotion model: Quantification and immunolocalisation of CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 in the liver. Cancer Res. 52: 3436–3442.
  • Waddell, W.J. (2003). Thesholds of carcinogenicity in the EDO1 study. Toxicol. Sci. 72:158–163.
  • Williams, G.M. (1987). Definition of a human cancer hazard. In: Butterworth, B.E., and Slaga, T. (edts.), Nongenotoxic mechanisms in carcinogenesis, 25th Banbury Report, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY.
  • Wolf, F.J. (1980). Effect of overloading pathways on toxicity. J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. 3: 113–134.
  • Yamasaki, H. (1988). Multistage carcinogenesis: Implications for risk estimation. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 7: 5–18.
  • Yamasaki, H., and Weinstein, L.B. (1982). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of tumor promotion and their implications with respect to risk assessment. SGCMSEC Workshop on qnantitative estimation of risk to human health from chemicals, in Rome. Cf. Vouk, V.B., Hoel, G.C., and Peakall, D.B. (edts.), Methods for estimating risk of chemical injury: Human and non-human biota and ecosystems. John Wiley, New York, 1985, pp. 155–180.
  • Zeise, L., Wilson, R., and Crouch, E.A.C. (1987). Dose-response relationships for carcinogens: A review. Environ. Health Perspect. 73: 259–308.
  • Zerban, H., Preussmann, R., and Bannasch, P. (1988). Dose-time relationship of the development of preneoplastic liver lesions induced in rats with low doses of N-nitrosodiethylnolamine. Carcinogenesis 9: 607–610.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.