321
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Off-Task Behavior as a Measure of In-Classroom Executive Function Skills? Evidence for Construct Validity and Contributions to Gains in Prekindergartners’ Academic Achievement

, , , , &

References

  • Ackerman, D. J., & Friedman-Krauss, A. H. (2017). Preschoolers’ executive function: Importance, contributors, research needs, and assessment options. Policy Information Report and ETS Research Report Series No. RR-17-22. https://doi.org/10.1002/ets2.12148
  • Ahmed, S. F., Tang, S., Waters, N. E., & Davis-Kean, P. (2019). Executive function and academic achievement: Longitudinal relations from early childhood to adolescence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(3), 446–458. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000296
  • Allan, N. P., Hume, L. E., Allan, D. M., Farrington, A. L., & Lonigan, C. J. (2014). Relations between inhibitory control and the development of academic skills in preschool and kindergarten: A meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 50(10), 2368–2379. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037493
  • Barrueco, S., López, M., Ong, C., & Lozano, P. (2012). Assessing Spanish-English bilingual preschoolers: A guide to best approaches and measures. Paul H Brookes Publishing.
  • Blair, C., & Razza, R. A. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78(2), 647–663. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.x
  • Bloom, H. S., & Weiland, C. (2015). Quantifying variation in head start effects on young children’s cognitive and socio-emotional skills using data from the National Head Start Impact Study. MDRC Working Paper.
  • Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2006). Tools of the mind. Pearson Australia Pty Limited.
  • Brock, L. L., Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., Nathanson, L., & Grimm, K. J. (2009). The contributions of ‘hot’ and ‘cool’ executive function to children’s academic achievement, learning-related behaviors, and engagement in kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 24(3), 337–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.06.001
  • Bronfrenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (1998). Handbook of child psychology; Vol. 1: Theoretical models of human development. Wiley.
  • Bull, R., Epsy, K. A., & Wiebe, S. A. (2008). Short-term memory, working memory, and executive functioning in preschoolers: Longitudinal predictors of mathematical achievement at age 7 years. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33(3), 205–228. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565640801982312
  • Carlson, S. M., & Moses, L. J. (2001). Individual differences in inhibitory control and children’s theory of mind. Child Development, 72(4), 1032–1053. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00333
  • Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Breton, C. (2002). How specific is the relation between executive function and theory of mind? Contributions of inhibitory control and working memory. Infant and Child Development, 11(2), 73–92. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.298
  • Clark, C. A. C., Pritchard, V. E., & Woodward, L. J. (2010). Preschool executive functioning abilities predict early mathematics achievement. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1176–1191. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019672
  • Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2007). Effects of a preschool mathematics curriculum: Somatic research on the building blocks project. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 38(2), 136–163. https://doi.org/10.2307/30034954
  • Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., Layzer, C., Unlu, F., & Fesler, L. (2020). Effects on mathematics and executive function of a mathematics and play intervention versus mathematics alone. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 51(3), 301–333. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresemtheduc-2019-0069
  • Clements, D. H., Sarama, J. H., & Liu, X. H. (2008). Development of a measure of early mathematics achievement using the Rasch model: The research-based early maths assessment. Educational Psychology, 28(4), 457–482. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410701777272
  • Connor, C. M. D., Morrison, F. J., Fishman, B. J., Ponitz, C. C., Glasney, S., Underwood, P. S., Piasta, S. B., Crowe, E. C., & Schatschneider, C. (2009). The ISI classroom observation system: Examining the literacy instruction provided to individual students. Educational Researcher, 38(2), 85–99. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X09332373
  • Cramer, T., Morris, P., & Blair, C. (2019). Teacher reports of social-emotional development: Moving from measure to construct. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 48(3), 98–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.01.010
  • Davidson, M. C., Amso, D., Anderson, L. C., & Diamond, A. (2006). Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching. Neuropsychologia, 44(11), 2037–2078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.02.006
  • Duckworth, A. L., & Yeager, D. S. (2015). Measurement matters: Assessing personal qualities other than cognitive ability for educational purposes. Educational Researcher, 44(4), 237–251. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X15584327
  • Duncan, S. E., & Davila, E. A. (1986). PreLAS English/Espafiol. Monterrey, CA: CTBIMcGraw Hill.
  • Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, D. M. (2007). PPVT-4: Peabody picture vocabulary test. Pearson Assessments.
  • Espy, K. A., Sheffield, T. D., Wiebe, S. A., Clark, C. A. C., & Moehr, M. (2011). Executive control and dimensions of problem behaviors in preschool children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 52(1), 33–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02265.x
  • Gathercole, S. E. (1999). Cognitive approaches to the development of short-term memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3(11), 410–419. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(99)01388-1
  • Gathercole, S. E., & Pickering, S. J. (2000). Assessment of working memory in six- and seven-year-old children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(2), 377–390. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.92.2.377
  • Godwin, K. E., Seltman, H., Almeda, M., Skerbetz, M. D., Kai, S., Baker, R. S., & Fisher, A. V. (2021). The elusive relationship between time on-task and learning: Not simply an issue of measurement. Educational Psychology, 41(4), 502–519. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2021.1894324
  • Gormley, W. T., Jr., Gayer, T., Phillips, D., & Dawson, B. (2005). The effects of universal pre-k on cognitive development. Developmental Psychology, 41(6), 872–884. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.6.872
  • Gresham, F., & Elliott, S. N. (2008). Social skills improvement system (SSIS) rating scales. SSIS Rating Scales.
  • Hightower, A. D., Cowen, E. L., Spinell, A. P., Lotyczewski, B. S., Guare, J. C., Rohrbeck, C. A., & Brown, L. P. (1987). The Child rating scale: The development of a socioemotional self-rating scale for elementary school children. School Psychology Review, 16(2), 239–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.1987.12085288
  • Hughes, C., & Ensor, R. (2008). Does executive function matter for preschoolers’ problem behaviors? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9107-6
  • Hughes, C., & Ensor, R. (2011). Individual differences in growth in executive function across the transition to school predict externalizing and internalizing behaviors and self-perceived academic success at 6 years of age. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108(3), 663–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.06.005
  • Jacob, R., & Parkinson, J. (2015). The potential for school-based interventions that target executive function to improve academic achievement: A review. Review of Educational Research, 85(4), 512–552. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654314561338
  • Ladd, G. W., & Profilet, S. M. (1996). The child behavior scale: A teacher-report measure of young children’s aggressive, withdrawn, and prosocial behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 32(6), 1008–1024. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.32.6.1008
  • Lipsey, M. W., Nesbitt, K. T., Farran, D. C., Dong, N., Fuhs, M. W., & Wilson, S. J. (2017). Learning-related cognitive self-regulation measures for prekindergarten children: A comparative evaluation of the educational relevance of selected measures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(8), 1084–1102. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000203
  • Maier, M. F., McCormick, M. P., Xia, S., Hsueh, J., Weiland, C., Morales, A., Boni, M., Tonachel, M., Sachs, J., & Snow, C. (2022). Content-rich instruction and cognitive demand in prek: Using systematic observations to predict child gains. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 60, 96–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.12.010
  • McClelland, M. M., & Cameron, C. E. (2012). Self-regulation in early childhood: Improving conceptual clarity and developing ecologically valid measures. Child Development Perspectives, 6(2), 136–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00191.x
  • McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M. D., Farris, C. L., Jewkes, A. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2007). Links between behavioral regulation and preschoolers’ literacy, vocabulary, and math skills. Developmental Psychology, 43(4), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.947
  • McCormick, M. P., Weissman, A. K., Weiland, C., Hsueh, J., Sachs, J., & Snow, C. (2020). Time well spent: Home learning activities and gains in children’s academic skills in the prekindergarten year. Developmental Psychology, 56(4), 710. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000891
  • McCoy, D. C. (2019). Measuring young children’s executive function and self-regulation in classrooms and other real-world settings. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 22, 63–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-019-00285-1
  • McCoy, D. C., Jones, S., Leong, D., Bodrova, E., Wilder-Smith, B., & Koepp, A. (2017, April). An observational measure of regulation-related skills in the early childhood classroom setting. Presentation at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Austin, T.X.
  • McCoy, D. C., Koepp, A. E., Jones, S. M., Bodrova, E., Leong, D. J., & Deaver, A. H. (2022). An observational approach for exploring variability in young children’s regulation-related skills within classroom contexts. Developmental Science, 25(6), e13250. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13250
  • Moffett, L., & Morrison, F. J. (2020). Off-task behavior in kindergarten: Relations to executive function and academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(5), 938–955. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000397
  • Morris, P. A., Mattera, S. K., & Maier, M. F. (2016). Making pre-k count: Improving math instruction in New York City. MDRC Report.
  • Nesbitt, K. T., Farran, D. C., & Fuhs, M. W. (2015). Executive function skills and academic achievement gains in prekindergarten: Contributions of learning-related behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 51(7), 865–878. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000021
  • Noldus Information Technology. (2013). The observer Video-Pro: Interactive multimedia tutorial (Version 13.0) [Computer software]. Noldus Information Technology, Inc.
  • Obradovic, J., Sulik, M. J., Finch, J. E., & Tirado-Strayer, N. (2018). Assessing students’ executive functions in the classroom: Validating a scalable group-based procedure. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 55, 4–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.03.003
  • Powell, D. R., Diamond, K. E., Buchinal, M. R., & Koehler, M. J. (2010). Effects of an early literacy professional development intervention on head start teachers and children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2), 299–312. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017763
  • Puma, M., Bell, S., Cook, R., Heid, C., Shapiro, G., Broene, P., Jenkins, F., Fletcher, P., Quinn, L., Friedman, J., Ciarico, J., Rohacek, M., Adams, G., & Spier, E. (2010). Head Start Impact Study, Final Report.
  • Raver, C. C., Jones, S. M., Li-Grining, C., Zhai, F., Bub, K., & Pressler, E. (2011). CSRP’s impact on low-income preschoolers’ preacademic skills: Self-regulation as a mediating mechanism. Child Development, 82(1), 362–378. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01561.x
  • Reardon, S. F., & Portilla, X. A. (2016). Recent trends in income, racial, and ethnic school readiness gaps at kindergarten entry. AERA Open, 2(3), 233285841665734. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332848316657343
  • Sameroff, A. (2010). A unified theory of development: A dialectic integration of nature and nurture. Child Development, 8(1), 6–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01378.x
  • Sarama, J., Clements, D. H., Wolfe, C. B., & Spitler, M. E. (2012). Longitudinal evaluation of a scale-up model for teaching mathematics with trajectories and technologies. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 5(2), 105–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2011.627980
  • Sasser, T. R., Bierman, K. L., & Heinrichs, B. (2015). Executive functioning and school adjustment: The mediational role of pre-kindergarten learning-related behaviors. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 30(1), 70–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.09.001
  • Schmitt, S. A., Geldhof, G. J., Purpura, D. J., Duncan, R., & McClelland, M. M. (2017). Examining the relations between executive function, math, and literacy, during the transition to kindergarten: A multi-analytic approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(8), 1120–1140. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000193
  • Schmitt, S. A., Pratt, M. E., & McClelland, M. M. (2014). Examining the validity of behavioral self-regulation tools in predicting preschoolers’ academic achievement. Early Education and Development, 25(5), 641–660. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2014.850397
  • Schochet, P. Z. (2009). Statistical power for regression discontinuity designs in education evaluations. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 34(2), 238–266. https://doi.org/10.3102/1076998609332748
  • Schrank, F. A., McGrew, K. S., Ruef, M. L., Alvarado, C. G., Munoz-Sandoval, A. F., & Woodcock, R. W. (2005). Overview and technical supplement (Bateria III Woodcock-Munoz Assessment Service Bulletin No. 1). Riverside Publishing.
  • Takacs, Z. K., & Kassai, R. (2019). The efficacy of different interventions to foster children’s executive function skills: A series of meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 145(7), 653–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000195
  • Tominey, S. L., & McClelland, M. M. (2011). Red light, purple light: Findings from a randomized trial using circle time games to improve behavioral self-regulation in preschool. Early Education and Development, 22(3), 489–519. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2011.574258
  • Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2012). Practitioner review: Do performance-based measures and ratings of executive function assess the same construct? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(2), 131–143. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12001
  • Ursache, A., Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2011). The promotion of self-regulation as a means of enhancing school readiness and early achievement in children at risk for school failure. Child Development Perspectives, 6(2), 122–128. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00209.x
  • Viterbori, P., Usai, M. C., Traverso, L., & De Franchis, V. (2015). How preschool executive functioning predicts several aspects of math achievement in grades 1 and 3: A longitudinal study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 140, 38–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2015.06.014
  • Walker, O. L., & Henderson, H. A. (2012). Temperament and social problem solving competence in preschool: Influences on academic skills in early elementary school. Social Development, 21(4), 761–779. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2011.00653.x
  • Weiland, C., Moffett, L., Rosada, P. G., Weissman, A., Zhang, K., Maier, M., & Sachs, J. (2023). Learning experiences vary across youngaut children in the same classroom: Evidence from the individualizing student instruction measure in the Boston Public Schools. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 63, 313–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.11.008
  • Weiland, C., & Yoshikawa, H. (2013). Impacts of a prekindergarten program on children’s mathematics, language, literacy, executive function, and emotional skills. Child Development, 84(6), 2112–2130. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12099
  • Welsh, J. A., Nix, R. L., Blair, C., Bierman, K., & Nelson, K. (2010). The development of cognitive skills and gains in academic school readiness for children from low-income families. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(1), 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016738
  • Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S., & Mather, N. (2001). Woodcock-Johnson III tests of achievement. Riverside Publishing.
  • Zelazo, P. D., Blair, C. B., & Willoughby, M. T. (2016). Executive function: Implications for education.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.