What Factors Drive School Districts to Adopt Universal Pre-Kindergarten (UPK): Evidence from Wisconsin

References

• Ackah-Jnr, F. R., Appiah, J., Addo-Kissiedu, K., & Kwao, A. (2022). Early childhood education policy and practice in Ghana: Document and evidence analysis with McDonnell and elmore’s framework of policy instruments. Multidisciplinary Journal of Educational Research, 12(3), 295–321. https://doi.org/10.17583/remie.9964
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agrawal, D., Patil, B., Sairam, S., & Chaudhary, P. (2021). India’s policy and program landscape for early childhood development. Indian Pediatrics, 58(Suppl 1), 16–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13312-021-2350-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allison, P. D. (2014). Event history and survival analysis: Regression for longitudinal event data (Vol. 46). SAGE publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452270029
   Google Scholar
• Altshuler, S. J. (2003). From barriers to successful collaboration: Public schools and child welfare working together. Social Work, 48(1), 52–63. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/48.1.52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Artz, B., & Welsch, D. M. (2016). The impact of publicly provided early childhood education programs on district‐level test scores. Contemporary Economic Policy, 34(1), 89–106. https://doi.org/10.1111/coep.12128
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, D. H., Duncan, G. J., Cunha, F., Foorman, B. R., & Yeager, D. S. (2020). Persistence and fade-out of educational-intervention effects: Mechanisms and potential solutions. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 21(2), 55–97. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100620915848
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bard, J., Gardener, C., & Wieland, R. (2006). Rural school consolidation: History, research summary, conclusions, and recommendations. The Rural Educator, 27(2), 40–48. https://doi.org/10.35608/ruraled.v27i2.497
   Google Scholar
• Barnett, W. S. (2010). Universal and targeted approaches to preschool education in the United States. International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy, 4(1), 1–12.
   Google Scholar
• Barnett, W. S., & Lamy, C. E. (2013). Achievement gaps start early: Preschool can help. In P. L. Carter & K. G. Welner (Eds.), Closing the opportunity gap : What America must do to give every child an even chance (pp. 98–110). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bassok, D. (2010). Do Black and Hispanic children benefit more from preschool? Understanding differences in preschool effects across racial groups. Child Development, 81(6), 1828–1845. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01513.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bassok, D., Fitzpatrick, M., & Loeb, S. (2011). Disparities in child care availability across communities: Differential reflection of targeted interventions and local demand. Unpublished paper, University of Virginia.
   Google Scholar
• Bassok, D., Fitzpatrick, M., & Loeb, S. (2014). Does state preschool crowd-out private provision? The impact of universal preschool on the childcare sector in Oklahoma and Georgia. Journal of Urban Economics, 83, 18–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2014.07.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bassok, D., Miller, L. C., & Galdo, E. (2016). The effects of universal state pre-kindergarten on the child care sector: The case of Florida’s voluntary pre-kindergarten program. Economics of Education Review, 53, 87–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2016.05.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell, C. M. (2013). The curious case of Oklahoma: A historical analysis of the passage of universal pre-kindergarten legislation in Oklahoma.
   Google Scholar
• Blau, D. M. (2021). The effects of universal preschool on child and adult outcomes: A review of recent evidence from Europe with implications for the United States. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 55, 52–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.10.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloch, M. (1992). Critical Perspectives on the Historical Relationship between Child Development and Early Childhood Education Research. In S. A. Kessler & B. B. Swadener (Eds.), Reconceptualizing the Early Childhood Curriculum: beginning the dialogue (pp. 3–20). New York: Teachers College Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bouffard, S. (2018). Principals aren’t ready for public Pre-K. Education Week, 37(20), 22–33.
   Google Scholar
• Brewer, C., Gasko, J. W., & Miller, D. (2011). Have we been here before? Lessons learned from a micro history of the policy development of universal kindergarten. Educational Policy, 25(1), 9–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904810386603
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, C. A., & Wright, T. S. (2011). The rush toward universal public pre-K: A media analysis. Educational, 25(1), 115–133. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904810386601
   Google Scholar
• Brown, C. P., & Gasko, J. W. (2012). Why should pre-k be more like elementary school? A case study of pre-k reform. The Journal, 26(3), 264–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2012.686471
   Google Scholar
• Burchinal, M., Foster, T., Garber, K., Cohen-Vogel, L., Bratsch-Hines, M., & Peisner-Feinberg, E. (2022). Examining three hypotheses for pre-kindergarten fade-out. Developmental Psychology, 58(3), 453–469. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001302
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burchinal, M. R., Roberts, J. E., Nabors, L. A., & Bryant, D. M. (1996). Quality of center child care and infant cognitive and language development. Child Development, 67(2), 606–620. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131835
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cascio, E. U. (2017). Does universal preschool hit the target? Program access and preschool impacts (No. w23215). National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Cascio, E. U. (2021). Early childhood education in the United States: What, When, Where, Who, How, and Why ( No. w28722). National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Casto, H. G., & Sipple, J. W. (2011). Who and what influences school leaders’ decisions: An institutional analysis of the implementation of universal prekindergarten. Educational, 25(1), 134–166. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904810387591
   Google Scholar
• Chaudry, A., Morrissey, T., Weiland, C., & Yoshikawa, H. (2017). Cradle to kindergarten: A new plan to combat inequality. Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Cherry, C. J. (2011). Superintendents’ perspectives on early childhood education: Leadership at a crossroads [ Doctoral dissertation]. University of Minnesota.
   Google Scholar
• Clifford, R. M., Barbarin, O., Chang, F., Early, D., Bryant, D., Howes, C., Burchinal, M., & Pianta, R. (2005). What is pre-kindergarten? Characteristics of public pre-kindergarten programs. Applied Developmental Science, 9(3), 126–143. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532480xads0903_1
   Google Scholar
• Cohen-Vogel, L., Sadler, J., Little, M. H., Merrill, B., & Curran, F. C. (2022). The adoption of public pre-kindergarten among the American states: An event history analysis. Educational Policy, 36(6), 1407–1439. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904820961002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conger, D., Gibbs, C. R., Uchikoshi, Y., & Winsler, A. (2019). New benefits of public school pre-kindergarten programs: Early school stability, grade promotion, and exit from ELL services. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 48, 26–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.10.015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox, D. R. (1972). Regression models and life‐tables. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B (Methodological), 34(2), 187–202. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1972.tb00899.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curran, F. C. (2015). Expanding downward: Innovation, diffusion, and state policy adoptions of universal preschool. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 23, 36–36. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v23.1688
   Google Scholar
• Dawson, R. F. (2008). Early childhood education: Origins, theories and policy realities. Michigan State University.
   Google Scholar
• Delaney, K. K., & Neuman, S. B. (2018). Selling pre-K: Media, politics, and policy in the case of universal prekindergarten in New York City. Teachers College Record, 120(4), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811812000406
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodge, K. A., Bai, Y., Ladd, H. F., & Muschkin, C. G. (2017). Impact of North Carolina’s early childhood programs and policies on educational outcomes in elementary school. Child Development, 88(3), 996–1014. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12645
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engel, M., Claessens, A., Watts, T., & Stone, S. (2016). Socioeconomic inequality at school entry: A cross-cohort comparison of families and schools. Children and Youth Services Review, 71, 227–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.10.036
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fahle, E. M., Chavez, B., Kalogrides, D., Shear, B. R., Reardon, S. F., & Ho, A. D. (2021). Stanford education data archive: Technical documentation (Version 4.1). http://purl.stanford.edu/db586ns4974
   Google Scholar
• Fraga, L., Dobbins, D., & McCready, M. (2015). Parents and the high cost of childcare. Child Care Aware of America 2015 Report. https://www.childcareaware.org
   Google Scholar
• Friedman-Krauss, A. H., Barnett, W. S., Garver, K. A., Hodges, K. S., Weisenfeld, G. G., & Gardiner, B. A. (2021). The state of preschool 2020: State preschool yearbook. National Institute for Early Education Research.
   Google Scholar
• Fuller, B. (2007). Standardized childhood: The political and cultural struggle over early education. Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fuller, B., Bein, E., Bridges, M., Kim, Y., & Rabe-Hesketh, S. (2017). Do academic preschools yield stronger benefits? Cognitive emphasis, dosage, and early learning. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 52, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.05.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuller, E. J., Young, M. D., Richardson, M. S., Pendola, A., & Winn, K. M. (2018). The pre-K-8 school leader in 2018: A 10-year study. National Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP).
   Google Scholar
• Gaines, J. D. (2014). Perceptions of leadership in early childhood education: A multiple case study. Northcentral University.
   Google Scholar
• Gayl, C. L., Young, M., & Patterson, K. (2009). New beginnings: Using federal title i funds to support local pre-K efforts. Federal policy series. Pew Center on the States.
   Google Scholar
• Glynn, S. J. (2019). Breadwinning mothers continue to be the US Norm. Center for American Progress.
   Google Scholar
• Gormley, W. T., Jr., Gayer, T., Phillips, D., & Dawson, B. (2005). The effects of universal pre–K on cognitive develop- ment. Developmental Psychology, 41(6), 872–884. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.6.872
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graue, M. E., Wilinski, B., & Nocera, A. (2016). Local control in the era of accountability: A case study of Wisconsin preK. Education Policy Analysis Archives/Archivos Analíticos de Políticas Educativas, 24, 1–30. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.24.2366
   Google Scholar
• Greaves, M., & Bahous, R. (2021). Adapting to change; Exploring early childhood educators’ perceptions of a child-centered curriculum. Early Childhood Education Journal, 49(4), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-020-01077-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenberg, E. H. (2018). Public preferences for targeted and universal preschool. AERA Open, 4(1).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harding, J. F., & Paulsell, D. (2018). Improving access to early care and education: An equity-focused policy research agenda. Mathematica Policy Research.
   Google Scholar
• Heckman, J., Pinto, R., & Savelyev, P. (2013). Understanding the mechanisms through which an influential early childhood program boosted adult outcomes. American Economic Review, 103(6), 2052–2086. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.103.6.2052
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heckman, J. J., & Masterov, D. V. (2007). The productivity argument for investing in young children. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 29(3), 446–493. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9353.2007.00359.x
   Google Scholar
• Ishimine, K., Tayler, C., & Bennett, J. (2010). Quality and early childhood education and care: A policy initiative for the 21st century. International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy, 4(2), 67–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/2288-6729-4-2-67
   Google Scholar
• Kahn, M. E., & Barron, K. (2015). The political economy of state and local investment in pre-k programs ( No. w21208). National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Karila, K. (2012). A Nordic perspective on early childhood education and care policy. European Journal of Education, 47(4), 584–595. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, J. (2019). How principal leadership seems to affect early career teacher turnover. American Journal of Education, 126(1), 101–137. https://doi.org/10.1086/705533
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, J., & Wang, S. (2019). Head Start availability and supply gap of childcare slots: A New Jersey study. Children and Youth Services Review, 104, 104394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104394
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kingdon, J. (2003). Agendas, alternatives, and public policies (2nd ed.). Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Kleinberg, J., Ludwig, J., Mullainathan, S., & Obermeyer, Z. (2015). Prediction policy problems. American Economic Review, 105(5), 491–495. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.p20151023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ladd, H. F., Muschkin, C. G., & Dodge, K. A. (2014). From birth to school: Early childhood initiatives and third-grade outcomes in North Carolina. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 33(1), 162–187. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.21734
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazerson, M. (1970). Social reform and early childhood education: Some historical perspectives. Urban Education, 5(1), 84–102. https://doi.org/10.1177/004208597000500105
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, H., Park, E., & Chen, J. J. (2017). Early childhood education policies in Asia Pacific. Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Magnuson, K., & Waldfogel, J. (2016). Trends in income-related gaps in enrollment in early childhood education: 1968 to 2013. AERA Open, 2(2), 2332858416648933. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858416648933
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magnuson, K. A., Ruhm, C., & Waldfogel, J. (2007). Does prekindergarten improve school preparation and performance? Economics of Education Review, 26(1), 33–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2005.09.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magnuson, K. A., & Waldfogel, J. (2005). Early childhood care and education: Effects on ethnic and racial gaps in school readi- ness. The Future of Children / Center for the Future of Children, the David & Lucile Packard Foundation, 15(1), 169–196. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2005.0005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martínez A, C., & Perticará, M. (2017). Childcare effects on maternal employment: Evidence from Chile. Journal of Development Economics, 126, 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2017.01.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrissey, T. W. (2017). Child care and parent labor force participation: A review of the research literature. Review of Economics of the Household, 15(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-016-9331-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Center for Education Statistics. (2022). Enrollment rates of young children. Condition of education. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cfa
   Google Scholar
• Prentice, S., & White, L. A. (2019). Childcare deserts and distributional disadvantages: The legacies of split childcare policies and programmes in Canada. The Journal, 35(1), 59–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/21699763.2018.1526700
   Google Scholar
• Reardon, S. F. (2011). The widening academic achievement gap between the rich and the poor: New evidence and possible explanations. In R. J. Murnane & G. J. Duncan (Eds.), Whither opportunity? Rising inequality, schools, and children’s life chances (pp. 91–116). Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Sager, F., & Rielle, Y. (2013). Sorting through the garbage can: Under what conditions do governments adopt policy programs? Policy Sciences, 46(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11077-012-9165-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singer, J. D., Willett, J. B., & Willett, J. B. (2003). Applied longitudinal data analysis: Modeling change and event occurrence. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195152968.001.0001
   Google Scholar
• Sipple, J. W., McCabe, L. A., & Casto, H. G. (2020). Child care deserts in New York state: Prekindergarten implementation and community factors related to the capacity to care for infants and toddlers. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 51, 167–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.10.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugrue, E. P., & Lightfoot, E. (2017). Preschool policymaking by stealth: Application of an alternative framework for the policy process. The Journal, 16(4), 332–350. https://doi.org/10.1080/15588742.2016.1266982
   Google Scholar
• Temple, J. A., & Reynolds, A. J. (2007). Benefits and costs of investments in preschool education: Evidence from the Child–Parent Centers and related programs. Economics of Education Review, 26(1), 126–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2005.11.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The Brookings Institution. (2017). The current state of scientific knowledge on pre-kindergarten effects. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/duke_prekstudy_final_4-4-17_hires.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Tyack, D. (1992). Health and social services in public schools: Historical perspectives. International Journal of Offshore and Polar Engineering, 2(1), 19–31. https://doi.org/10.2307/1602459
   Google Scholar
• Valentino, R. (2018). Will public pre-K really close achievement gaps? Gaps in prekindergarten quality between students and across states. American Educational Research Journal, 55(1), 79–116. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831217732000
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vinovskis, M. A. (2008). The birth of Head Start: Preschool education policies in the Kennedy and Johnson administrations. University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Whitehurst, G. J. (2017). Why the federal government should subsidize childcare and how to pay for it. The Brookings Institution.
   Google Scholar
• Wilinski, B. (2017). When pre-K comes to school: Policy, partnerships, and the early childhood education workforce. Teachers College Press.
   Google Scholar
• Winkworth, G., & McArthur, M. (2005). Breaking into schools: Establishing high quality human services in educational contexts. Children Australia, 30(1), 19–26. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1035077200010543
   Google Scholar
• Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. (n.d.). Four-year-old kindergarten (4K) start-up grants. https://dpi.wi.gov/early-childhood/kind/4k/start-up-grants-schedule
   Google Scholar
• Wisconsin Legislative Fiscal Bureau. (2017). Open enrollment program: Informational paper 26. https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/misc/lfb/informational_papers/january_2017/0026_open_enrollment_program_informational_paper_26.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Wolf, S., Aber, J. L., Behrman, J. R., & Tsinigo, E. (2019). Experimental impacts of the “Quality Preschool for Ghana” interventions on teacher professional well-being, classroom quality, and children’s school readiness. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 12(1), 10–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2018.1517199
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wrobel, S. (2012). From threat to opportunity: A Head Start program’s response to state-funded Pre-K. Journal of Health and Human Services Administration, 74–105.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhang, Y., & Yang, K. (2008). What drives charter school diffusion at the local level: Educational needs or political and institutional forces? Policy Studies Journal, 36(4), 571–591. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0072.2007.00284.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar