Review of the Evidence Regarding the Carcinogenicity of Hexavalent Chromium in Drinking Water

REFERENCES

• International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) . 1990 . Chromium and chromium compounds . IARC Monograph Evaluating Carcinogenic Risks to Humans , 49 : 49 – 214 .
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) . 1998 . Toxicological Review of Hexavalent Chromium in Support of Summary Information on the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) Washington, DC Accessed November 2004, http://www.epa.gov/iris/toxreviews/0144-tr.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) . Chemicals known to the state to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986. (Proposition 65), Title 22 CCR Section 12000. Accessed November 2004, http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/
   Google Scholar
• California Department of Health Services (DHS) . Chromium-6 in Drinking Water: An Overview of Sampling Results Accessed November 2004, http://www.dhs.ca.gov/ps/ddwem/chemicals/chromium6/samplingresults.html
   Google Scholar
• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) . 2000 . Toxicological Profile for Chromium , ATSDR .
   Google Scholar
• De Flora , S . 2000 . Threshold mechanisms and site specificity in chromium(VI) carcinogenesis . Carcinogenesis , 21 : 533 – 41 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paustenbach , D J , Finley , B L , Mowat , F S and Kerger , B D . 2003 . Human health risk and exposure assessment of chromium (VI) in tap water . J Toxicol Environ Health A , 66 : 1295 – 339 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proctor , D M , Otani , J M , Finley , B L , Paustenbach , D J , Bland , J A , Speizer , N and Sargent , E V . 2002 . Is hexavalent chromium carcinogenic via ingestion? A weight of the evidence review . J Toxicol Environ Health. A , 65 : 701 – 46 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Flora , S and Wetterhan , K E . 1989 . Mechanisms of chromium metabolism and genotoxicity . Life Chemistry Reports , 7 : 169 – 244 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Cohen , M D , Kargacin , B , Klein , C B and Costa , M . 1993 . Mechanisms of chromium carcinogenicity and toxicity . Crit Rev Toxicol , 23 : 255 – 81 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugden , K D and Stearns , D M . 2000 . The role of chromium(V) in the mechanism of chromate-induced oxidative DNA damage and cancer . J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol , 19 : 215 – 30 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jennette , K W . 1982 . Microsomal reduction of the carcinogen chromate produces chromium(V) . J Am Chem Soc , 108 : 874 – 875 . [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   Google Scholar
• Wetterhahn , K E , Cupo , D Y and Connett , P H . 1984 . The interaction of chromium with cellular components in vitro . Trace Subst Envn Health , 18 : 154 – 162 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Shi , X L and Dalal , N S . 1989 . Chromium(V) and hydroxyl radical formation during the glutathione reductase catalyzed reduction of chromium(VI) . Biochem Biophys Res Comm , 163 : 627 – 634 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiu , A , Katz , A J , Beaubier , J , Chiu , N and Shi , X . 2004 . Genetic and cellular mechanism in chromium and nickel carcinogenesis considering epidemiologic findings . Mol Cell Biochem , 255 : 181 – 194 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connett , P and Wetterhahn , K E . 1983 . Metabolism of the carcinogen chromate by cellular constituents . Struct Bonding , 54 : 93 – 124 . [CSA]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiu , A , Chiu , N , Shi , X , Beaubier , J and Dalal , N S . 1998 . Activation of a procarcinogen by reduction: Cr6 +→CR5 + → Cr4 +→ Cr3 +. A case study by electron spin resonance (ESR/PMR) . Environ Carcinon and Ecotox Rev , C16 ( 2 ) : 135 – 148 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Liu , K J , Shi , X L , Jiang , J J , Goda , F , Dalal , N S and Swartz , H M . 1995 . Chromate induced Cr(V) formation in live mice and its control by cellular antioxidants;an L-band E PR study . Arch Biochem Biophys , 323 : 33 – 39 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ueno , S , Susa , N , Furukawa , Y and Sugiyama , M . 1995 . Formation of paramagnetic chromium in liver of mice treated with dichromate (VI) . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 135 : 165 – 71 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu , K J , Shi , X L and Dalal , N S . 1997 . Synthesis of Cr4 +-GSH, its identification and its free hydroxyl radical generation: a model compound for Cr6 + carcinogenicity . Biochem Biophys Res Comm , 235 : 54 – 58 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi , X L and Dalal , N S . 1989 . Chromium(V) and hydroxyl radical formation during the glutathione reductase catalyzed reduction of chromium(VI) . Biochem Biophys Res Comm , 163 : 627 – 634 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wakeman , T P , Kim , W J , Callens , S , Chiu , A , Brown , K D and Xu , B . 2004 . The ATM-SMC1 pathway is essential for activation of the chromium (VI)-induced S-phase checkpoint . Mut Res , 554 : 241 – 251 . [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz , A J , Shi , X L , Chiu , N and Beaubier , J . 2001 . Combining somatic recombination and mutation in Drosophila melanogaster and electron spin spectroscopy data to interpret epidemiological data on chromium carcinogenicity data . Mol Cell Biochem , 222 : 61 – 68 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costa , M . 1997 . Toxicity and carcinogenicity of Cr(VI) in animal models and humans . Crit Rev Toxicol , 27 : 431 – 42 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Flora , S , Camoirano , A , Bagnasco , M , Bennicelli , C , Corbett , G E and Kerger , B D . 1997 . Estimates of the chromium(VI) reducing capacity in human body compartments as a mechanism for attenuating its potential toxicity and carcinogenicity . Carcinogenesis , 18 : 531 – 7 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Febel , H , Szegedi , B and Huszar , S . 2001 . Absorption of inorganic, trivalent and hexavalent chromium following oral and intrajejunal doses in rats . Acta Vet Hung , 49 : 203 – 9 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donaldson , R M Jr and Barreras , R F . 1966 . Intestinal absorption of trace quantities of chromium . J Lab Clin Med , 68 : 484 – 93 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerger , B D , Paustenbach , D J , Corbett , G E and Finley , B L . 1996 . Absorption and elimination of trivalent and hexavalent chromium in humans following ingestion of a bolus dose in drinking water . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 141 : 145 – 58 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gargas , M L , Norton , R L , Paustenbach , D J and Finley , B L . 1994 . Urinary excretion of chromium by humans following ingestion of chromium picolinate. Implications for biomonitoring . Drug Metab Dispos , 22 : 522 – 9 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , R A , Polansky , M M , Bryden , N A , Patterson , K Y , Veillon , C and Glinsmann , W H . 1983 . Effects of chromium supplementation on urinary Cr excretion of human subjects and correlation of Cr excretion with selected clinical parameters . J Nutr , 113 : 276 – 81 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez-Vergara , E , Gonzalez , B , Hegenauer , J and Saltman , P . 1981 . Ti Chromium coordination compounds of pyridoxal and nicotinicadid; synthesis, absorbtion, and metabolism . Israel Journal Chem , 21 : 18 – 22 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Aitio , A , Jarvisalo , J , Kiilunen , M , Tossavainen , A and Vaittinen , P . 1984 . Urinary excretion of chromium as an indicator of exposure to trivalent chromium sulphate in leather tanning . Int Arch Occup Environ Health , 54 : 241 – 9 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finley , B L , Scott , P K , Norton , R L , Gargas , M L and Paustenbach , D J . 1996 . Urinary chromium concentrations in humans following ingestion of safe doses of hexavalent and trivalent chromium: implications for biomonitoring . J Toxicol Environ Health , 48 : 479 – 99 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finley , B L , Kerger , B D , Katona , M W , Gargas , M L , Corbett , G C and Paustenbach , D J . 1997 . Human ingestion of chromium (VI) in drinking water:pharmacokinetics following repeated exposure . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 142 : 151 – 9 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paustenbach , D J , Hays , S M , Brien , B A , Dodge , D G and Kerger , B D . 1996 . Observation of steady state in blood and urine following human ingestion of hexavalent chromium in drinking water . J Toxicol Environ Health , 49 : 453 – 61 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray , S J and Sterling , K . 1950 . The tagging of red cells and plasma proteins with radioactive chromium . J. Clin Invest. , 29 : 1604 [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bentley , S A . 1977 . Red cell survival studies reinterpreted . Clin Haematol , 6 : 601 – 23 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aaseth , J , Alexander , J and Norseth , T . 1982 . Uptake of 51Cr-chromate by human erythrocytes—a role of glutathione . Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh) , 50 : 310 – 5 . [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lewalter , J , Korallus , U , Harzdorf , C and Weidemann , H . 1985 . Chromium bond detection in isolated erythrocytes: a new principle of biological monitoring of exposure to hexavalent chromium . Int Arch Occup Environ Health , 55 : 305 – 18 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coogan , T P , Squibb , K S , Motz , J , Kinney , P L and Costa , M . 1991 . Distribution of chromium within cells of the blood . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 108 : 157 – 66 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corbett , G E , Dodge , D G , O'Flaherty , E , Liang , J , Throop , L , Finley , B L and Kerger , B D . 1998 . In vitro reduction kinetics of hexavalent chromium in human blood . Environ Res , 78 : 7 – 11 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiegand , H J , Ottenwalder , H and Bolt , H M . 1985 . Fast uptake kinetics in vitro of 51Cr (VI) by red blood cells of man and rat . Arch Toxicol , 57 : 31 – 4 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capellmann , M and Bolt , H M . 1992 . Chromium (VI) reducing capacity of ascorbic acid and of human plasma in vitro . Arch Toxicol , 66 : 45 – 50 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korallus , U , Harzdorf , C and Lewalter , J . 1984 . Experimental bases for ascorbic acid therapy of poisoning by hexavalent chromium compounds . Int Arch Occup Environ Health , 53 : 247 – 56 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richelmi , P and Baldi , C . 1984 . Blood levels of hexavalent chromium in rats. “In vitro” and “in vivo” experiments . Int J Environ Anal Chem , 17 : 181 – 6 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao , M , Levy , L S , Braithwaite , R A and Brown , S S . 1993 . Monitoring of total chromium in rat fluids and lymphocytes following intratracheal administration of soluble trivalent or hexavalent chromium compounds . Hum Exp Toxicol , 12 : 377 – 82 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minoia , C and Cavalleri , A . 1988 . Chromium in urine, serum and red blood cells in the biological monitoring of workers exposed to different chromium valency states . Sci Total Environ , 71 : 323 – 7 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiegand , H J , Ottenwalder , H and Bolt , H M . 1984 . Disposition of intratracheally administered chromium(III) and chromium(VI) in rabbits . Toxicol Lett , 22 : 273 – 6 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber , H . 1983 . Long-term study of the distribution of soluble chromate-51 in the rat after a single intratracheal administration . J Toxicol Environ Health , 11 : 749 – 64 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sayato , Y , Nakamuro , K , Matsui , S and Ando , M . 1980 . Metabolic fate of chromium compounds. I. Comparative behavior of chromium in rat administered with Na2 51CrO4 and 51CrCl3 . J Pharmacobiodyn , 3 : 17 – 23 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Edel , J and Sabbioni , E . 1985 . Pathways of Cr (III) and Cr (VI) in the rat after intratracheal administration . Hum Toxicol , 4 : 409 – 16 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Suzuki , Y . 1988 . Reduction of hexavalent chromium by ascorbic acid in rat lung lavage fluid . Arch Toxicol , 62 : 116 – 22 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavalleri , A , Minoia , C , Richelmi , P , Baldi , C and Micoli , G . 1985 . Determination of total and hexavalent chromium in bile after intravenous administration of potassium dichromate in rats . Environ Res , 37 : 490 – 6 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doisy , R J , Streeten , D PH , Souma , M L , Kalafer , M E , Rekant , S L and Dalakos , T G . 1971 . “ Chromium metabolism ” . In Newer Trace Elements in Nutrition , Edited by: Mertz , W. and Cornatzer , W. E. 155 – 68 . New York : Dekker .
   Google Scholar
• Suzuki , Y , Homma , K , Minami , M and Yoshikawa , H . 1984 . Distribution of chromium in rats exposed to hexavalent chromium and trivalent chromium aerosols . Ind Health , 22 : 261 – 77 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Onkelinx , C . 1977 . Compartment analysis of metabolism of chromium(III) in rats of various ages . Am J Physiol , 232 : E478 – 84 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venezia , C and Karol , M H . 1984 . Comparison of cobalt and chromium binding to blood elements . Toxicology , 30 : 125 – 33 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merritt , K , Brown , S A and Sharkey , N A . 1984 . The binding of metal salts and corrosion products to cells and proteins in vitro . J Biomed Mater Res , 18 : 1005 – 15 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kortenkamp , A , Beyersmann , D and O'Brien , P . 1987 . Uptake of chromium(III) complexes by erythrocytes . Toxicol Environ Chem , 14 : 23 – 32 . [CSA]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Committee for Standardization in Haematology (ICSH) . 1980 . Recommended method for radioisotope red-cell survival studies. International Committee for Standardization in Haematology . Br J Haematol , 45 : 659 – 66 . [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baetjer , A , Damron , C and Dudacz , V . 1959 . The distribution and retention of chromium in men and animals . AMA Arch Ind Health , 20 : 136 – 50 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yamaguchi , S , Sano , K and Shimojo , N . 1983 . On the biological half-time of hexavalent chromium in rats . Ind Health , 21 : 25 – 34 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MacKenzie , R D , Byerrum , R U , Decker , C F , Hoppert , C A and Langham , R F . 1958 . Chronic Toxicity Studies II. Hexavalent and trivalent chromium administered in drinking water to rats . A.M.A Arch Ind Health , 18 : 232 – 4 . [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wiegand , H J , Ottenwalder , H and Bolt , H M . 1986 . Disposition of a soluble chromate in the isolated perfused rat liver . Xenobiotica , 16 : 839 – 44 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Visek , W J , Whitney , I B , Kuhn , U SG and Comar , C L . 1953 . Metabolism of Cr by animals as influenced by chemical state . Proc Soc Exp Biol Med , 84 : 610 – 5 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamamoto , A , Wada , O and Ono , T . 1981 . A low-molecular-weight, chromium-binding substance in mammals . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 59 : 515 – 23 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cikrt , M and Bencko , V . 1979 . Biliary excretion and distribution of 51Cr(III) and 51Cr(VI) in rats . J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol , 23 : 241 – 6 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Manzo , L , Di Nucci , A , Edel , J , Gregotti , C and Sabbioni , E . 1983 . Biliary and gastrointestinal excretion of chromium after administration of Cr-III and Cr-VI in rats . Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol , 42 : 113 – 25 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sutherland , J E , Zhitkovich , A , Kluz , T and Costa , M . 2000 . Rats retain chromium in tissues following chronic ingestion of drinking water containing hexavalent chromium . Biol Trace Elem Res , 74 : 41 – 53 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomann , R V , Snyder , C A and Squibb , K S . 1994 . Development of a pharmacokinetic model for chromium in the rat following subchronic exposure. I. The importance of incorporating long-term storage compartment . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 128 : 189 – 98 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witmer , C M , Park , H S and Shupack , S I . 1989 . Mutagenicity and disposition of chromium . Sci Total Environ , 86 : 131 – 48 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langard , S , Gundersen , N , Tsalev , D L and Gylseth , B . 1978 . Whole blood chromium level and chromium excretion in the rat after zinc chromate inhalation . Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh) , 42 : 142 – 9 . [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MacKenzie , R , Byerrum , R , Decker , C , Hoppert , C and Langham , R. 1958 . Chronic Toxicity Studies: II. Hexavalent and trivalent chromium administered in drinking water to rats . Am Med Assoc Arch Ind Health , 18 : 232 – 234 . [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ivankovic , S and Preussman , R . 1975 . Absence of toxic and carcinogenic effects after administration of high doses of chromic oxide pigment in subacute and long term feeding experiments in rats . Food Cosmet Toxicol , 13 : 347 – 351 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anderson , R , Bryden , N and Polansky , M . 1997 . Lack of toxicity of chromium chloride and chromium picolinate in rats . J Am Coll Nutr , 16 : 273 – 297 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Toxicology Program . Final Report on the Reproductive Toxicity of Potassium Dichromate (Hexavalent) . February 25 1997 . North Carolina : National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences . (CAS #7778-50-9) Administered in Diet to BALB/c Mice, PB97-144919
   Google Scholar
• Acharya , S , Mehta , K , Krishnan , S and Rao , C V . 2001 . A subtoxic interactive toxicity study of ethanol and chromium in male Wistar rats . Alcohol , 23 : 99 – 108 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chopra , A , Pereira , G , Gomes , T , Pereira , J , Prabhu , P and Krishnan , S . 1996 . A study of chromium and ethanol toxicity in female Wistar rats . Toxicol Environ Chem , 53 : 91 – 106 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• De Flora , S , Bagnasco , M , Serra , D and Zanacchi , P . 1990 . Genotoxicity of chromium compounds. A review . Mutat Res , 238 : 99 – 172 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bigaliev , A , Turebaev , M and Elemesova , M . 1977 . “ [Cytogenetic study of the in vivo mutagenic properties of chromium compounds] (Russian) ” . In Genet Posledstviya Zagryanenia Okruzhayushehei Sredy (Proceedings of the Symposium) , Edited by: Dubinin, , N P . 173 – 1976 . Moscow : Nauka .
   Google Scholar
• Izzotti , A , Bagnasco , M , Camoirano , A , Orlando , M and De Flora , S . 1998 . DNA fragmentation, DNA-protein crosslinks, postlabeled nucleotidic modifications, and 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine in the lung but not in the liver of rats receiving intratracheal instillations of chromium(VI). Chemoprevention by oral N-acetylcysteine . Mutat Res , 400 : 233 – 44 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng , L , Sonntag , D M , de Boer , J and Dixon , K . 2000 . Chromium(VI)-induced mutagenesis in the lungs of big blue transgenic mice . J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol , 19 : 239 – 49 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shindo , Y , Toyoda , Y , Kawamura , K , Kurebe , M , Shimada , H , Hattori , C and Satake , S . 1989 . Micronucleus test with potassium chromate(VI) administered intraperitoneally and orally to mice . Mutat Res , 223 : 403 – 6 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coogan , T P , Motz , J , Snyder , C A , Squibb , K S and Costa , M . 1991 . Differential DNA-protein crosslinking in lymphocytes and liver following chronic drinking water exposure of rats to potassium chromate . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 109 : 60 – 72 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarkar , D , Sharma , A and Talukder , G . 1993 . Differential protection of chlorophyllin against clastogenic effects of chromium and chlordane in mouse bone marrow in vivo . Mutat Res , 301 : 33 – 8 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagchi , D , Hassoun , E A , Bagchi , M , Muldoon , D F and Stohs , S J . 1995 . Oxidative stress induced by chronic administration of sodium dichromate . Comp Biochem Physiol C Pharmacol Toxicol Endocrinol , 110 : 281 – 7 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagchi , D , Hassoun , E A , Bagchi , M and Stohs , S J . 1995 . Chromium-induced excretion of urinary lipid metabolites, DNA damage, nitric oxide production, and generation of reactive oxygen species in Sprague-Dawley rats . Comp Biochem Physiol C Pharmacol Toxicol Endocrinol , 110 : 177 – 87 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagchi , D , Vuchetich , P J , Bagchi , M , Hassoun , E A , Tran , M X , Tang , L and Stohs , S J . 1997 . Induction of oxidative stress by chronic administration of sodium dichromate . Free Radic Biol Med , 22 : 471 – 8 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuykendall , J R , Kerger , B D , Jarvi , E J , Corbett , G E and Paustenbach , D J . 1996 . Measurement of DNA-protein cross-links in human leukocytes following acute ingestion of chromium in drinking water . Carcinogenesis , 17 : 1971 – 7 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mirsalis , J C , Hamilton , C M , O'Loughlin , K G , Paustenbach , D J , Kerger , B D and Patierno , S . 1996 . Chromium (VI) at plausible drinking water concentrations is not genotoxic in the in vivo bone marrow micronucleus or liver unscheduled DNA synthesis assays . Environ Mol Mutagen , 28 : 60 – 3 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagchi , D , Stohs , S J , Downs , B W , Bagchi , M and Preuss , H G . 2002 . Cytotoxicity and oxidative mechanisms of different forms of chromium . Toxicology , 180 : 5 – 22 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagchi , D , Bagchi , M and Stohs , S J . 2001 . Chromium (VI)-induced oxidative stress, apoptotic cell death and modulation of p53 tumor suppressor gene . Mol Cell Biochem , 222 : 149 – 58 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagchi , D , Balmoori , J , Bagchi , M , Ye , X , Williams , C B and Stohs , S J . 2002 . Comparative effects of TCDD, endrin, naphthalene and chromium (VI) on oxidative stress and tissue damage in the liver and brain tissues of mice . Toxicology , 175 : 73 – 82 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dana Devi , K , Rozati , R , Saleha Banu , B , Jamil , K and Grover , P . 2001 . In vivo genotoxic effect of potassium dichromate in mice leukocytes using comet assay . Food Chem Toxicol , 39 : 859 – 65 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paustenbach , D J and Finley , B L . 1999 . DNA-protein cross-links as a biomarker of Cr(VI) exposure . Environ Health Perspect , 107 : A494 – 5 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borneff , J , Engelhardt , K , Griem , W , Kunte , H and Reichert , J . 1968 . Carcinogens in water and soil. XXII. Experiment with 3,4-benzopyrene and potassium chromate in mice drink . Arch Hyg Bakteriol , 152 : 45 – 53 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Davidson , T , Kluz , T , Burns , F , Rossman , T , Zhang , Q , Uddin , A , Nadas , A and Costa , M . 2004 . Exposure to chromium (VI) in the drinking water increases susceptibility to UV-induced skin tumors in hairless mice . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 196 : 431 – 7 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dick , E J Jr , Kittell , C L , Meyer , H , Farrar , P L , Aopp , S L , Esposito , J J , Buller , R ML , Neubauer , J , Kang , Y H and Mckee , A E . 1996 . Mousepox outbreak in a laboratory mouse colony . Lab Anim Sci , 46 : 602 – 11 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• U.S. EPA . July 1999 . Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment , July , Washington, DC : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . Review Draft, Available from: http://www.epa.gov/ncea/raf/pdfs/cancer_gls.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Sontag , J M , Page , N P and Saffiotti , U . 1976 . Guidelines for carcinogen bioassay in small rodents , Bethesda, MD : National Cancer Institute . DHHS Publication (NIH 76-801)
   Google Scholar
• National Toxicology Program (NTP) . 1984 . Report on the ad hoc panel on chemical carcinogenesis testing and evaluation of the national toxicology program board of scientific counselors , National Toxicology Program North Carolina : National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences .
   Google Scholar
• McConnell , E . 1989 . The Maximum Tolerated Dose: The Debate . J Amer Coll Toxicol , 8 : 1115 – 20 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• IARC . 1980 . Long-term and short-term screening assays for carcinogens: A critical appraisal , 21 – 83 . International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monograph Evaluation Carcinogenic Risks to Humans . Suppl 2
   Google Scholar
• Borneff , J , Engelhardt , K , Griem , W , Kunte , H and Reichert , J . 1968 . Carcinogens in soil. XXII. Experiment with 3,4-benzopyrene and potassium chromate in mice drink water . Arch Hyg Bakteriol , 152 : 45 – 53 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rigdon , R H and Neal , J . 1966 . Effect of feeding benzo(a)pyrene on growth of young mice . Tex Rep Biol Med , 24 : 473 – 8 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhang , J D and Li , X L . 1987 . Chromium pollution of soil and water in Jinzhou . Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi , 21 ( 5 ) : 262 – 4 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhang , J D and Li , S . 1997 . Cancer mortality in a Chinese population exposed to hexavalent chromium in water . J Occup Environ Med , 39 ( 4 ) : 315 – 9 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang , J . Epidemic study of malignant neoplasms in JinZhou Suburb , JinZhou, China : JinZhou Health and Anti-Epidemic Station . undated
   Google Scholar
• Zhang , J and Li , X . 1980 . Study of the Effect of Environmental Pollution in the JinZhou Area on Residents' Health: I. Mortality Analysis , JinZhou, China : JinZhou Health and Anti-Epidemic Station .
   Google Scholar
• Zhang , J and Li , X . 1986 . Chromium Contamination in the City of JinZhou , JinZhou, China : JinZhou Health and Anti-Epidemic Station .
   Google Scholar
• JinZhou Health and Anti-Epidemic Station and Jinzhou Metal Alloy Plant . 1979 . Presented at the First National Environmental Science Conference . 1979 , Shanghai, China. Report on the investigation of underground water contamination by discharged chromium contaminated wastewater
   Google Scholar
• Administrative Center for China's Agenda 21, 1994, accessed November 2004, http://sedac.ciesin.org/china/policy/acca21/216-6.html
   Google Scholar
• Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences . 1981 . “ Atlas of Cancer Mortality in the People's Republic of China, Rates for 1973–1975 ” . Shanghai, China
   Google Scholar
• Breslow , N E and Day , N E . 1987 . Statistical Methods in Cancer Research, The Design and Analysis of Cohort Studies , Vol. II , Lyon : International Agency for Research on Cancer .
   Google Scholar
• Abramson , J H and Gahlinger , P M . 2001 . Sagebrush Press . Computer Programs for Epidemiologic Analyses: PEPI v. 4.0
   Google Scholar