Toxicity, Biomarkers, Genotoxicity, and Carcinogenicity of Trichloroethylene and Its Metabolites: A Review

REFERENCES

• 1985 . Environment protection agency, Health assessment document for trichloroethylene EPA/600/8-82/006F
   Google Scholar
• US Environmental Protection Agency . 2001 . Trichloroethylene health risk assessment: synthesis and characterization EPA/600/P-01/002A
   Google Scholar
• 1997 . Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry . Toxicological Profile for Trichloroethylene , 11 : 124
   Google Scholar
• Crebelli , R and Carere , A . 1989 . Genetic toxicology of 1,1,2-trichloroethylene . Mutat Res , 221 ( 1 ) : 11 – 37 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Candura , S M and Faustman , E M . 1991 . Trichloroethylene: toxicology and health hazards . G Ital Med Lav , 13 : 17 – 25 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Motohashi , N , Nagashima , H , Molnar , J and Trichloroethylene , I . 1999a . Carcinogenicity of Trichloroethylene . In vivo , 13 : 211 – 214 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Motohashi , N , Nagashima , H , Molnar , J and Trichloroethylene , I I . 1999b . Mechanism of carcinogenicity of Trichloroethylene . In vivo , 13 : 215 – 220 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green , T . 2000 . Pulmonary toxicity and carcinogenicity of trichloroethylene: species differences and mode of action . Environ Health Perspect , 108 ( 2 ) : 261 – 264 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lash , L H , Fisher , J W , Lipscomb , J C and Parker , J C . 2000a . Metabolism of trichloroethylene . Environ Health Perspect , 108 : 77 – 200 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lash , L H , Parker , J C and Scott , C S . 2000b . Modes of action of trichloroethylene for kidney tumorigenesis . Environ Health Perspect , 108 ( 2 ) : 225 – 40 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weihsueh , A , Chiu , J C , Caldwell Keshava , N and Scott , C S . 2006 . Key Scientific Issues in the Health Risk Assessment of Trichloroethylene . Environ Health Perspect , 114 ( 9 ) : 1445 – 1449 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , R E and Guengerich , F P . 1983 . Metabolism of trichloroethylene in isolated hepatocytes, microsomes and reconstituted enzyme systems containing cytochrome P-450 . Cancer Res , 43 : 1145 – 52 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davidson , I WF and Bellies , R P . 1991 . Consideration of target organ toxicity of trichloroethylene in terms of metabolite toxicity and pharmacokinetics . Drug Metab Rev , 23 : 493 – 599 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goeptar , A R , Commandeur , J NM , Vanommen , B , Vanbladeren , P J and Vermeulen , N PE . 1995 . Metabolism and kinetics of trichloroethylene in relation to toxicity and carcinogenicity: Relevance of the mercapturic acid pathway . Chem Res Toxicol , 8 : 3 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lash , L L . 1999 . Identification of S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl) glutathione in the blood of human volunteers exposed to trichloroethylene . J Toxicol Environ Health , 56 ( 1 ) : 1 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dekant , W and Henschler , D . 1999 . Organ specific carcinogenicity of haloalkenes mediated by glutathione conjugation . J Cancer Res Clin Onco , 125 ( 3–4 ) : 174 – 181 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaidya , V S , Shankar , K , Lock , E A , Bucci , T J and Mehendale , H M . 2003 . Renal injury and repair following S-1, 2 dichlorovinyl-L-cysteine administration to mice . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 188 ( 2 ) : 110 – 121 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green , T , Dow , J , Ong , C N , Ng , V and Ong , H Y . 2004 . Biological monitoring of kidney function among workers occupationally exposed to Trichloroethylene . Occup Environ Med , 61 ( 4 ) : 312 – 317 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruning , T , Vamvakas , S , Makropoulis , V and Birner , G . 1997 . Acute Intoxication with Trichloroethene: Clinical Symptoms, Toxicokinetics, Metabolism, and Development of Biochemical Parameters for Renal Damage . Toxicol Sci , 41 : 157 – 165 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green , T , Dow , J and Foster , J . 2003 . Increased formic acid excretion and the development of kidney toxicity in rats following chronic dosing with trichloroethanol, a major metabolite of trichloroethylene . Toxicology , 191 ( 2–3 ) : 109 – 119 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lash , L H , Qian , W , Putt , D A , Hueni , S E and Elfarra , A A . 2001a . Renal and hepatic toxicity of trichloroethylene and its glutathione-derived metabolites in rats and mice: sex-, species-, and tissue-dependent differences . J Pharmacol Exp Ther , 297 ( 1 ) : 155 – 164 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lash , L H , Hueni , S E and Putt , D A . 2001b . Apoptosis, necrosis, and cell proliferation induced by S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine in primary cultures of human proximal tubular cells . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 177 ( 1 ) : 1 – 16 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummings , B S , Zangar , R C , Novak , R F and Lash , L H . 2000 . Cytotoxicity of trichloroethylene and S-(1, 2-dichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine in primary cultures of rat renal proximal tubular and distal tubular cells . Toxicology , 150 ( 1–3 ) : 83 – 98 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar , P , Prasad , A K , Maji , B K , Mani , U and Dutta , K K . 2001a . Hepatoxic alterations induced by inhalation of trichloroethylene in rats . Biomed Environ Sci , 14 ( 4 ) : 325 – 332 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soni , M G , Ramaiah , S K , Mumtaz , M M , Clewell , H and Mehendale , H M . 1999 . Toxicant-inflicted injury and stimulated tissue repair are opposing toxicodynamic forces in predictive toxicology . Regul Toxicol Pharmacol , 29 ( 2 ) : 165 – 174 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anand , S S , Mumtaz , M M and Mehendale , H M . 2005 . Dose-dependent liver tissue repair after chloroform plus trichloroethylene binary mixture . Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol , 96 ( 6 ) : 436 – 444 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu , H , Tanphaichitr , N , Forkert , P G , Anupriwan , A and Weerachatyanukul , W . 2004 . Exposure to trichloroethylene and its metabolites causes impairment of sperm fertilizing ability in mice . Toxicol Sci , 82 ( 2 ) : 590 – 597 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamb , J C and Hentz , K L . 2006 . Toxicological review of male reproductive effects and trichloroethylene exposure: assessing the relevance to human male reproductive health . Reprod Toxicol , 22 ( 4 ) : 557 – 563 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DuTeaux , S B , Berger , T , Hess , R A , Sartini , B L and Miller , M G . 2004 . Male reproductive toxicity of trichloroethylene: sperm protein oxidation and decreased fertilizing ability . Biol Reprod , 70 ( 5 ) : 1518 – 1526 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forkert , P G , Lash , L H , Nadeau , V , Tardif , R and Simmonds , A . 2002 . Metabolism and toxicity of trichloroethylene in epididymis and testis . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 182 ( 3 ) : 244 – 254 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forkert , P G , Lash , L , Tardif , R , Tanphaichitr , N and Vandevoort , C . 2003 . Identification of trichloroethylene and its metabolites in human seminal fluid of workers exposed to trichloroethylene . Drug Metab Dispos , 31 ( 3 ) : 306 – 311 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DuTeaux , S B , Hengel , M J , DeGroot , D E , Jelks , K A and Miller , M G . 2003 . Evidence for trichloroethylene bioactivation and adduct formation in the rat epididymis and efferent ducts . Biol Reprod , 69 ( 3 ) : 771 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger , T and Horner , C M . 2003 . In vivo exposure of female rats to toxicants may affect oocyte quality . Reprod Toxicol , 17 ( 3 ) : 273 – 81 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffin , J M , Gilbert , K M and Pumford , N R . 2000 . Inhibition of CYP2E1 reverses CD4+ T-cell alterations in trichloroethylene-treated MRL+/+ mice . Toxicol Sci , 54 ( 2 ) : 384 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reif , J S , Burch , J B , Nuckols , J R , Metzger , L and Ellington , D . 2003 . Neurobehavioral effects of exposure to trichloroethylene . Clin Mol Teratol , 67 ( 7 ) : 488 – 95 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Waseem , M , Ali , M , Dogra , S , Dutta , K K and Kaw , J L . 2001 . Toxicity of trichloroethylene following inhalation and drinking contaminated water . J Appl Toxicol , 21 ( 6 ) : 441 – 44 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subramoniam , A , Goel , S K , Pandya , K P and Seth , P K . 1989 . Influence of trichloroethylene treatment on phosphoinositides in rat brain . Toxicol Lett , 49 ( 1 ) : 55 – 60 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg , S J , Lebowitz , M D , Graver , E J and Hicks , S . 1990 . An association of human congenital cardiac malformations and drinking water contaminants . J Am Coll Cardiol , 16 : 155 – 64 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dowson , B V , Johnson , P D , Goldberg , S J and Ulreich , J B . 1993 . Cardiac teratogenesis of halogenated hydrocarbon-contaminated drinking water . J Am Coll Cardiol , 21 ( 6 ) : 1466 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyer , A S , Finch , W T and Runyan , R B . 2000 . Trichloroethylene inhibits development of embryonic heart valve precursors in vitro . Toxicol Sci , 53 ( 1 ) : 109 – 17 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collier , J M , Selmin , O , Johnson , P D and Runyan , R B . 2003 . Trichloroethylene effects on gene expression during cardiac development . Birth Defects Res Clin Mol Teratol , 67 : 488 – 495 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drake , V J , Koprowski , S L , Lough , J , Hu , N and Smith , S M . 2006a . Trichloroethylene exposure during cardiac valvuloseptal morphogenesis alters cushion formation and cardiac hemodynamics in the avian embryo . Environ Health Perspect , 114 ( 6 ) : 842 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher , J W , Channel , S R , Eggers , J S , Johnson , P D and MacMahon , K L . 2001 . Trichloroethylene, trichloroacetic acid and dichloroacetic acid: do they affect fetal rat heart development . Int J Toxicol , 20 ( 5 ) : 257 – 67 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drake , V J , Koprowski , S L , Hu , N , Smith , S M and Lough , J . 2006b . Cardiogenic effects of trichloroethylene and trichloroacetic acid following exposure during heart specification of avian development . Toxicol Sci , 94 ( 1 ) : 153 – 62 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iavicoli , I , Marinaccio , A and Carelli , G . 2005 . Effects of occupational trichloroethylene exposure on cytokine levels in workers . J Occup Environ Med , 47 ( 5 ) : 453 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaneko , T , Saegusa , M , Tasaka , K and Sato , A . 2000 . Immunotoxicity of trichloroethylene: a study with MRL-lpr/lpr mice . J Appl Toxicol , 20 ( 6 ) : 471 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dai , Y , Leng , S , Li , L , Niu , Y and Huang , H . 2004 . Genetic polymorphisms of cytokine genes and risk for trichloroethylene-induced severe generalized dermatitis: a case-control study . Biomarkers , 9 ( 6 ) : 470 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , H H , Lin , Y R , Peng , Q G and Chan , M H . 2005 . Effects of trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene on muscle contractile responses and epithelial prostaglandin release and acetylcholinesterase activity in swine trachea . Toxicol Sci , 83 ( 1 ) : 149 – 54 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shih , C L , Chen , H H and Chiu , T H . 2001 . Acute exposure to trichloroethylene differentially alters the susceptibility to chemoconvulsants in mice . Toxicology , 162 ( 1 ) : 35 – 42 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elcombe , C R , Rose , M S and Pratt , I . 1985 . Biochemical, histological and ultrastructural changes in rats and mouse liver following the administration of trichloroethylene: Possible relevance to species differences in hepatocarcinogenicity . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 79 : 365 – 76 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carney , E W , Thorsrud , B A , Dugard , P H and Zablotny , C L . 2006 . Developmental toxicity studies in Crl:CD (SD) rats following inhalation exposure to trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene . Birth Defects Res Dev Reprod Toxicol , 77 ( 5 ) : 405 – 12 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Inderjit Asakawa , C and Kakuta , H . 2003 . Phytotoxicity and fate of 1,1,2-trichloroethylene: a laboratory study . J Chem Ecol , 6 : 1329 – 35 .
   Google Scholar
• McGregor , D B , Reynolds , D M and Zeiger , E . 1989 . Conditions affecting the mutagenicity of trichloroethylene in Salmonella . Environ Mol Mutagen , 13 ( 3 ) : 197 – 202 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crebelli , R , Bignami , M , Conti , L and Carere , A . 1982 . Mutagenicity of trichloroethylene in Salmonella typhimurium TA 100 . Ann 1st Super Sanita , 18 : 117 – 22 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Simmon , V F , Kauhanen , K and Tardiff , R G . 1977 . Mutagenic activity of chemicals identified in drinking water . Prog Genet Toxicol , 2 : 249 – 58 .
   Google Scholar
• Waskell , L . 1978 . A study of the mutagenicity of anesthetics and their metabolites . Mutat Res , 57 : 141 – 153 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bignami , M , Conti , G , Conti , L , Crebelli , R , Misuraca , F , Puglia , A M , Randazzo , R , Sciandrello , G and Carere , A . 1980 . Mutagenicity of halogenated aliphatic hydrocarbons in Salmonella typhimurium, Streptomyces coelicolor Aspergillus nidulans. . Chem biol Interact , 30 : 9 – 23 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haworth , S , Lawlor , T , Mortelmans , K , Speck , W and Zeiger , E . 1983 . Salmonella mutagenicity test results for 250 chemicals . Environ Mutagen , 1 : 3 – 142 .
   Google Scholar
• Demarini , D M , Perry , E and Shelton , M L . 1994 . Dichloroacetic acid and related compounds: induction of prophage in E. coli and mutagenicity and mutation spectra in Salmonella TA100 . Mutagenesis , 9 ( 5 ) : 429 – 437 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varma , M M , Ampy , F R , Verma , K and Talbot , W W . 1988 . In vitro mutagenicity of water contaminants in complex mixtures . J Appl Toxicol , 8 ( 4 ) : 243 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crebelli , R , Conti , G , Conti , L and Carere , A . 1985 . Mutagenicity of trichloroethylene, trichloroethanol and chloral hydrate in Aspergillus nidulans . Mutat Res , 155 ( 3 ) : 105 – 11 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White , A E , Eger , E I , Wolff , S and Steven , W C . 1979 . Sister chromatid exchange induced by inhaled anesthetics . Anesthesiology , 50 : 426 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shimada , T , Swanson , A F , Leber , P and Williams , G M . 1985 . Activities of chlorinated ethane and ethylene compounds in the Salmonella/rat microsome mitogenesis and rat hepatocytes/DNA repair assays under vapor phase exposure conditions . Cell Biol Toxicol , 1 : 159 – 79 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore , M M and Harrington-Brock , K . 2000 . Mutagenicity of trichloroethylene and its metabolites: Implications for risk assessment of trichloroethylene . Environ Health Perspect , 108 ( 2 ) : 215 – 223 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Walgren , J L , Kurtz , D T and McMillan , J M . 2005 . Lack of direct mitogenic activity of dichloroacetate and trichloroacetate in cultured rat hepatocytes . Toxicology , 211 ( 3 ) : 220 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tao , L , Yang , S , Xie , M , Kramer , P M and Pereira , M A . 2000 . Effect of trichloroethylene on DNA methylation and expression of early-intermediate protooncogenes in the liver of B6C3F1 mice . Toxicol Sci , 54 : 399 – 407 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parry , J M , Parry , E M , Boumer , R , Doherty , A and Ellard , S . 1996 . The detection and evaluation of aneugenic chemicals . Mutat Res/Fund Mol Mech Mutagen , 353 ( 1–2 ) : 11 – 46 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kautiainen , A , Vogel , J S and Turteltaub , K W . 1997 . Dose dependent binding of trichloroethylene to hepatic DNA and protein at low dose in mice . Chem Biol Interact , 106 ( 2 ) : 109 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiRenzo , A B , Gandolfi , A J and Spies , I G . 1982 . Microsomal bioactivation and covalent binding of aliphatic halides to DNA . Toxicol Lett , 11 : 243 – 252 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bull , R J . 2000 . Mode of Action of Liver Tumor Induction by Trichloroethylene and Its Metabolites, Trichloroacetate and Dichloroacetate . Environ Health Perspect , 108 ( 2 ) : 241 – 259 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Styles , J A , Wyatt , I and Coutts , C . 1991 . Trichloroacetic acid: studies on uptake and effects on hepatic DNA and liver growth in mouse . Carcinogenesis , 12 : 1715 – 1719 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang , L W , Daniel , F B and DeAngelo , A B . 1992 . Analysis of DNA strand breaks induced in rodent liver in vivo, hepatocytes in primary culture, and a human cell line by chlorinated acetic acids and chlorinated acetaldehydes . Environ Mol Mutagen , 20 : 277 – 288 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagaya , T , Ishikawa , N and Hata , H . 1989 . Sister-chromatid exchanges in lymphocytes of workers exposed to trichloroethylene . Mutat Res Gen Toxicol , 222 ( 3 ) : 279 – 282 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rasmussen , K , Sabroe , S , Wohlert , M , Ingerslev , H J and Kappel , B . 1988 . A genotoxic study of metal workers exposed to trichloroethylene Sperm parameters and chromosome aberrations in lymphocytes . Int Arch Occup Environ Health , 60 ( 6 ) : 419 – 423 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kligerman , A D , Bryant , M F , Doerr , C L , Erexson , G L and Evansky , P A . 1994 . Inhalation studies of the genotoxicity of trichloroethylene to rodents . Mutat Res , 322 ( 2 ) : 87 – 96 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sujata , T V and Hegde , M J . 1998 . C-mitotic effects of trichloroethylene on bone marrow cells of mice . Mutat Res , 413 ( 2 ) : 151 – 158 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robbiano , L , Baroni , D , Carrozzino , R , Mereto , E and Brambilla , G . 2004 . DNA damage and micronuclei induced in rat and human kidney cells by six chemicals carcinogenic to the rat kidney . Toxicology , 204 ( 2–3 ) : 187 – 95 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fahrig , R , Madle , S and Baumann , H . 1995 . Genetic toxicology of trichloroethylene (TCE) . Mutat Res , 340 : 1 – 36 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dees , C and Travis , C . 1993 . The mitogenic potential of trichloroethylene in B6C3F1 mice . Toxicol Lett , 69 : 129 – 137 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toraason , M , Clark , J , Dankovic , D , Mathias , P , Skaggs , S , Walker , C and Werren , D . 1999 . Oxidative stress and DNA damage in Fischer rats following acute exposure to trichloroethylene or perchloroethylene . Toxicology , 138 : 43 – 53 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott , C S and Chiu , W A . 2006 . Trichloroethylene cancer epidemiology: a consideration of selected issues . Environ Health Perspect , 114 : 1471 – 78 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wartenberg , D , Reyner , D and Scott , C S . 2000 . Trichloroethylene and Cancer: Epidemiologic Evidence . Environ Health Perspect , 108 ( 2 ) : 61 – 176 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fukuda , K , Takemoto , K and Tsuruta , H . 1983 . Inhalation carcinogenicity of trichloroethylene in mice and rats . Indust Health , 21 : 243 – 254 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maltoni , C , Lefemine , G and Cotti , G . 1986 . Experimental research on trichloroethylene carcinogenesis. Arch Indust . Carcinogen , 5 : 1 – 393 .
   Google Scholar
• Henschler , D , Romen , W , Elsasser , H M , Reichert , D and Eder , E . 1980 . Carcinogenicity study of trichloroethylene by long-term inhalation in three animal species . Arch Toxicol , 43 : 237 – 248 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caldwell , J C and Keshava , N . 2006 . Key issues in the modes of action and effects of trichloroethylene metabolites for liver and kidney tumorigenesis . Environ Health Perspect , 114 : 1457 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henschler , D , Bonse , G and Greim , H . 1976 . Carcinogenic potential of chlorinated ethylenes, tentative molecular rules . INSERM Symp Ser , 52 : 171 – 76 .
   Google Scholar
• Motohashi , N , Nagashima , H and Molnar , J . 1999c . Trichloroethylene III. Prediction of carcinogenicity of investigated compounds including Trichloroethylene . In vivo , 13 : 221 – 224 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lorenz , R R . 2000 . Dose-Response Analyses of the Carcinogenic Effects of Trichloroethylene in Experimental Animals . Environ Health Perspect , 108 ( 2 ) : 343 – 358 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Herren Freund , S L , Pereira , M A , Khoury , M D and Olson , G . 1987 . The carcinogenicity of trichloroethylene and its metabolites, trichloroacetic acid and dichloroacetic acid in mouse liver . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 90 ( 2 ) : 183 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , C W . 2000 . Biologically based dose response model of liver tumors induced by trichloroethylene . Environ Health Perspect , 108 ( 2 ) : 335 – 42 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harvey , J , Clewell , H J , Barton , H A , Maull , E A and Andersen , M E . 2001 . Under what conditions is trichloroethylene likely to be a carcinogen in humans . Human Ecol Risk Asses , 7 ( 4 ) : 687 – 716 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keshava , N and Caldwell , J C . 2006 . Key issues in the role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor agonism and cell signaling in trichloroethylene toxicity . Environ Health Perspect , 114 ( 9 ) : 1464 – 70 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maltoni , C , Lefemine , G , Cotti , G and Perino , G . 1988 . Long-term carcinogenicity bioassays on trichloroethylene administered by inhalation to Sprague-Dawley rats and Swiss and B6C3F1 mice . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences , 534 ( 1 ) : 316 – 342 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Douglas , G R , Gingerich , J D , Soper , L M , Potvin , M and Bjarnason , S . 1999 . Evidence for the lack of base-change and small-deletion mutation induction by trichloroethylene in lacZ transgenic mice . Environ Mol Mutagen , 34 ( 2–3 ) : 190 – 194 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cogliano , V J , Scott , C S , Caldwell , J C and Farland , W L . 2001 . Trichloroethylene: Using New Information to Improve the Cancer Characterization . Human Ecol Risk Assess , 7 ( 4 ) : 755 – 766 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seng , J E , Agrawal , N , Horsley , E T , Leakey , T I and Scherer , E M . 2003 . Toxicokinetics of chloral hydrate in ad libitum-fed, dietary-controlled and calorically restricted male B6C3F1 mice following short-term exposure . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 193 ( 2 ) : 281 – 92 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bull , R J , Orner , G A , Cheng , R S , Stillwell , L and Stauber , A J . 2002 . Contribution of dichloroacetate and trichloroacetate to liver tumor induction in mice by trichloroethylene . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 182 ( 1 ) : 55 – 65 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milks , M M and Couri , D . 1984 . Trichloroethylene effects on the formation of enzyme-altered foci in rat liver . Arch Toxicol , 56 ( 2 ) : 69 – 73 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raaschou , N O , Hansen , J , McLaughlin , J K , Kolstad , H and Christensen , J M . 2003 . Cancer risk among workers at Danish companies using trichloroethylene: a cohort study . Am J Epidemiol , 158 ( 12 ) : 1182 – 92 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tao , L , Ge , R , Xie , M , Kramer , P M and Pereira , M A . 1999 . Effect of trichloroethylene on DNA methylation and expression of early-intermediate protooncogenes in the liver of B6C3F1 mice . J Biochem Toxicol , 13 : 231 – 237 .
   Google Scholar
• Giver , C R , Wong , R , Moore , D H and Pallavicini , M G . 2001 . Dermal benzene and trichloroethylene induce aneuploidy in immature hematopoietic subpopulations in vivo . Environ Mol Mutagen , 37 ( 3 ) : 185 – 94 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oikari , A and Jiminez , B. 1992 . Effects of hepatotoxicants on the induction of microsomal monooxygenase activity in sunfish liver by beta-naphthoflavone and benzo[a]pyrene . Ecotoxicol Environ Saf , 23 : 89 – 102 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lam , P KS and Gray , J S . 2003 . The use of biomarkers in environmental monitoring programmes . Mar Pollut Bull , 46 : 182 – 186 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergman , K . 1983 . Application and results of whole-body autoradiography in distribution studies of organic solvents . Crit Rev Toxicol , 12 ( 1 ) : 59 – 118 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolts , H M and Filser , J G . 1977 . Irreversible binding of chlorinated ethylenes to macromolecules . Environ Health Perspect , 21 : 107 – 112 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu , Q X , Shen , T , Ding , R , Liang , Z Z and Zhang , X J . 2005a . Cytotoxicity of trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene on normal human epidermal keratinocytes and protective role of vitamin E . Toxicology , 209 ( 1 ) : 55 – 67 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu , Q X , Shen , T , Tu , D Y , Ding , R , Liang , Z Z and Zhang , X J . 2005b . Protective effects of Ginkgo biloba leaf extracts on trichloroethylene-induced human keratinocyte cytotoxicity and apoptosis . Skin Pharmacol Physiol , 18 : 160 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watanabe , S and Fukui , T . 2000 . Suppressive effect of curcumin on trichloroethylene induced oxidative stress . J Nutr Sci Vitaminol , 46 ( 5 ) : 230 – 4 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goel , S K , Rao , G S , Pandya , K P and Shanker , R . 1992 . Trichloroethylene toxicity in mice: a biochemical, hematological and pathological assessment . Ind J Exp Biol , 30 ( 5 ) : 402 – 6 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kumar , P , Prasad , A K , Mani , U , Maji , B K and Dutta , K K . 2001b . Trichloroethylene induced testicular toxicity in rats exposed by inhalation . Hum Exp Toxicol , 20 ( 11 ) : 585 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar , P , Prasad , A K , Mani , U , Maji , B K and Dutta , K K . 2000 . Steroidogenic alterations in testes and sera of rats exposed to trichloroethylene (TCE) by inhalation . Hum Exp Toxicol , 19 ( 2 ) : 117 – 121 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mensing , T , Welge , P , Voss , B , Fels , L M , Fricke , H H , Bruning , T and Wilhelm , M . 2002 . Renal toxicity after chronic inhalation exposure of rats to trichloroethylene . Toxicol Lett , 128 : 243 – 247 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hermann , M B , Magda , L , Silvia , S and Thomas , B . 2004 . Urinary α1-microglobulin excretion as biomarker of renal toxicity in trichloroethylene-exposed persons . Int Arch Occup Environ Health , 77 ( 3 ) : 186 – 190 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koop , D R , Crump , B L , Nordblom , G D and Coon , M J . 1985 . Immunochemical evidence for induction of the alcohol-oxidizing cytochrome P-450 of rabbit liver microsomes by diverse agents: ethanol, imidazole, trichloroethylene, acetone, pyrazole and isoniazid . Proc Natl Acad Sci , 82 ( 12 ) : 4065 – 69 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartosiewicz , M , Penn , S and Buckpitt , A . 2001 . Applications of gene arrays in environmental toxicology: fingerprints of gene regulation associated with cadmium chloride, benzo(a)pyrene, and trichloroethylene . Environ Health Perspect , 109 ( 1 ) : 71 – 74 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar