Chemical Mixtures: An Unsolvable Riddle?

REFERENCES

• ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) . 2001a . Guidance Manual for the Assessment of Joint Toxic Action of Chemical Mixtures Atlanta GA, , USA
   Google Scholar
• ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) . 2001b . Guidance for the Preparation of an Interaction Profile Atlanta, GA, , USA
   Google Scholar
• Berenbaum , MC. 1981 . Criteria for analyzing interactions between biologically active agents . Adv Cancer Res , 35 : 269 – 335 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berenbaum , MC. 1988 . Synergy and antagonism are not synonymous with therapeutic advantage and disadvantage . J Antimicrob Chemother , 21 : 497 – 500 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Berenbaum , MC. 1989 . What is synergy? . Pharmacol Rev , 41 : 93 – 141 . [published erratum appears in Pharmacol Rev 1990, 41:422]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bliss , CI. 1939 . The toxicity of poisons applied jointly . Ann Appl Biol , 26 : 585 – 615 .
   Google Scholar
• Borgert , CJ , Price , B Wells , C. 2001 . Evaluating interaction studies for mixture risk assessment . Hum Ecol Risk Assess , 7 : 259 – 306 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borgert , CJ , LaKind , JS and Witorsch , RJ. 2003 . A critical review of methods for comparing estrogenic activity of endogenous and exogenous chemicals in human milk and infant formula . Environ Health Perspect , 111 : 1020 – 36 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borgert , CJ , Gross , TS Guiney , PD . 2004a . Interactive effects of DDE and methoxychlor on hormone production in bass gonadal cultures . Environ Toxicol Chem , (in press)
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Borgert , CJ , Quill , TF , McCarty , LS and Mason , AM. 2004b . Can mode of action predict mixtures toxicity for risk assessment? . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , (in press)
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cassee , FR , Groten , JP van Bladeren , PJ . 1998 . Toxicological evaluation and risk assessment of chemical mixtures . Crit Rev Toxicol , 28 : 73 – 101 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawson , DA and Poch , G . 1997 . A method for evaluating mechanistic aspects of chemical mixture toxicity . Toxicol Methods , 7 : 267 – 78 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durkin , P , Hertzberg , R Stiteler , W . 1995 . The identification and testing of interaction patterns . Toxicol Lett , 79 : 251 – 64 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• el-Masri , HA , Constan , AA Ramsdell , HS . 1996a . Physiologically based pharmacodynamic modeling of an interaction threshold between trichloroethylene and 1,1-dichloroethylene in Fischer 344 rats . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 141 : 124 – 32 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• el-Masri , HA , Tessari , JD and Yang , RS . 1996b . Exploration of an interaction threshold for the joint toxicity of trichloroethylene and 1,1-dichloroethylene: Utilization of a PBPK model . Arch Toxicol , 70 : 527 – 39 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greco , WR , Bravo , G and Parsons , JC. 1995 . The search for synergy: A critical review from a response surface perspective . Pharmacol Rev , 47 : 331 – 85 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Groten , JP. 2000 . Mixtures and interactions . Food Chem Toxicol , 38 : S65 – 71 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haddad , S , Charest-Tardif , G Tardif , R . 2000 . Validation of a physiological modeling framework for simulating the toxicokinetics of chemicals in mixtures . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 167 : 199 – 209 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haddad , S , Beliveau , M Tardif , R . 2001 . A PBPK modeling-based approach to account for interactions in the health risk assessment of chemical mixtures . Toxicol Sci , 63 : 125 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hertzberg , RC and MacDonell , MM. 2002 . Synergy and other ineffective mixture risk definitions . Sci Total Environ , 288 : 31 – 42 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hertzberg , RC and Teuschler , LK. 2002 . Evaluating quantitative formulas for dose-response assessment of chemical mixtures . Environ Health Perspect , 110 ( Suppl 6 ) : 965 – 70 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hori , W. , ed. Drug-drug interactions: Analyzing in vitro-in vivo correlations . Transcript of IBC's International conference “Drug-drug interactions: Analyzing in vitro-in vivo correlations,” . December 10–11 1996 , Washington, DC, USA.
   Google Scholar
• Kane , GC and Lipsky , JJ. 2000 . Drug-grapefruit juice interactions . Mayo Clin Proc , 75 : 933 – 42 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krishnan , K and Brodeur , J . 1991 . Toxicological consequences of combined exposure to environmental pollutants . Arch Complex Environ Studies , 3 : 1 – 106 .
   Google Scholar
• Loewe , S and Muischnek , H . 1926 . Effect of combinations: Mathematical basis of problem . Arch Exp Pathol Pharmakol , 114 : 313 – 26 .
   Google Scholar
• McCarty , LS and MacKay , D . 1993 . Enhancing ecotoxicological modeling and assessment: Body residues and modes of toxic action . Environ Sci Technol , 27 : 1719 – 28 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mileson , BE , Chambers , JE Chen , WL . 1998 . Common mechanism of toxicity: A case study of organophosphorus pesticides . Toxicol Sci , 41 : 8 – 20 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore , LB , Goodwin , B Jones , SA . 2000 . StJohn's wort induces hepatic drug metabolism through activation of the pregnane X receptor . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA , 97 : 7500 – 02 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mumtaz , MM and Durkin , PR . 1992 . A weight-of-evidence approach for assessing interactions in chemical mixtures . Toxicol Ind Health , 8 : 377 – 406 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Safe , SH. 1990 . Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and related compounds: Environmental and mechanistic considerations which support the development of toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) . Crit Rev Toxicol , 21 : 51 – 88 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Safe , SH. 1998 . Hazard and risk assessment of chemical mixtures using the toxic equivalency factor approach . Environ Health Perspect , 106 : 1051 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva , E , Rajapakse , N and Kortenkamp , A . 2002 . Something from “nothing”—eight weak estrogenic chemicals combined at concentrations below NOECs produce significant mixture effects . Environ Sci Technol , 36 : 1751 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tallarida , RJ. 2001 . Drug synergism: Its detection and applications . J Pharmacol Exp Ther , 298 : 865 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toyoshiba , H , Walker , NJ Bailer , AJ . 2004 . Evaluation of toxic equivalency factors for induction of cytochromes P450 CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 enzyme activity by dioxin-like compounds . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 194 : 156 – 68 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) . 1990 . Technical Support Document on Risk Assessment of Chemical Mixtures Washington, DC, , USA EPA/600/8-90/064
   Google Scholar
• USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) . 1999 . Guidance for Identifying Pesticide Chemicals That Have a Common Mechanism of Toxicity Washington, DC, , USA
   Google Scholar
• USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) . 2000 . Supplementary Guidance for Conducting Health Risk Assessment of Chemical Mixtures Washington, DC, , USA
   Google Scholar
• USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) . 2003 . Draft Final Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment Washington, DC, , USA
   Google Scholar
• Verhaar , HJ , Morroni , JR Reardon , KF . 1997 . A proposed approach to study the toxicology of complex mixtures of petroleum products: The integrated use of QSAR, lumping analysis and PBPK/PD modeling . Environ Health Perspect , 105 ( Suppl 1 ) : 179 – 95 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar