Black and Blue: An integrated conceptual framework for understanding the trauma and mental impacts of police violence exposure in Black communities

References

• African American Policy Forum. (2015). Say Her Name: Resisting Police Brutality Against Black Women. https://www.aapf.org/_files/ugd/62e126_9223ee35c2694ac3bd3f2171504ca3f7.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Alang, S., McAlpine, D. D., & Hardeman, R. (2020). Police brutality and mistrust in medical institutions. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 7(4), 760–768. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00706-w
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alang, S., McAlpine, D., McCreedy, E., & Hardeman, R. (2017). Police brutality and black health: Setting the agenda for public health scholars. American Journal of Public Health, 107(5), 662–665. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2017.303691
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander, M. (2010). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. The New Press.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.).
   Google Scholar
• Aymer, S. R. (2016). “I can’t breathe”: A case study—helping black men cope with race-related trauma stemming from police killing and brutality. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 26(3–4), 367–376. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2015.1132828
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balbus, A., & Kantorová, D. (2021). No justice and no peace: The ongoing traumatic stress of families bereaved by law enforcement. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 0, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2020.1869091
   Google Scholar
• Barlé, N., Wortman, C. B., & Latack, J. A. (2017). Traumatic bereavement: Basic research and clinical implications. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 27(2), 127–139. https://doi.org/10.1037/int0000013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barsade, S. G. (2002). The ripple effect: Emotional contagion and its influence on group behavior. Administrative Science Quarterly, 47(4), 644. https://doi.org/10.2307/3094912
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell, D. (1992). Faces at the bottom of the well: The permanence of racism. Basic.
   Google Scholar
• Bell, D. (1995). Racial realism. In K. Crenshaw, N. Gotanda, G. Peller, & K. Thomas (Eds.), Critical race theory: The key writings that formed the movement (pp. 302–312). The New Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bell, D. (2004). Silent covenants: Brown v. Board of Education and the unfulfilled hopes for racial reform. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bell, G. C., Hopson, M. C., Craig, R., & Robinson, N. W. (2014). Exploring Black and White accounts of 21st-century racial profiling: Riding and driving while Black. Qualitative Research Reports in Communication, 15(1), 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/17459435.2014.955590
   Google Scholar
• Bill, H. (2020, June 6). From Eric Garner to George Floyd, 12 Black Lives Lost in Police Encounters That Stoked Mass Protests. ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/US/eric-garner-george-floyd-12-black-lives-lost/story?id=70999321
   Google Scholar
• Bor, J., Venkataramani, A. S., Williams, D. R., & Tsai, A. C. (2018). Police killings and their spillover effects on the mental health of Black Americans: A population-based, quasi-experimental study. Lancet, 392(10144), 302–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31130-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunson, R. K. (2007). “Police don’t like Black people”: African‐American young men’s accumulated police experiences*. Criminology & Public Policy, 6(1), 71–101. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2007.00423.x
   Google Scholar
• Bryant‐Davis, T., Adams, T., Alejandre, A., & Gray, A. A. (2017). The trauma lens of police violence against racial and ethnic minorities. The Journal of Social Issues, 73(4), 852–871. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12251
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buehler, J. W. (2017). Racial/Ethnic disparities in the use of lethal force by US police, 2010–2014. American Journal of Public Health, 107(2), 295–297. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2016.303575
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, F., & Valera, P. (2020). “The only thing new is the cameras”: A study of U.S. college students’ perceptions of police violence on social media. Journal of Black Studies, 51(7), 654–670. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934720935600
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carbado, D., & Harris, C. (2008). The new racial preferences. California Law Review, 96(5), 1139. https://doi.org/10.15779/Z38ZX35
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter, R. (2006). Race-based traumatic stress. Psychiatric Times, 23(14), 37–38.
   Google Scholar
• Carter, R., Johnson, V. E., Roberson, K., Mazzula, S. L., Kirkinis, K., & Sant-Barket, S. (2017). Race-based traumatic stress, racial identity statuses, and psychological functioning: An exploratory investigation. Professional Psychology: Research & Practice, 48(1), 30–37. https://doi.org/10.1037/pro0000116
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catalano, R., & Hartig, T. (2001). Communal bereavement and the incidence of very low birthweight in Sweden. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42(4), 333–341. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090182
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christina, C., & Sabina, G. (2020, June 20). Timeline: Inside the Investigation of Breonna Taylor’s Killing and Its Aftermath. ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/US/timeline-inside-investigation-breonna-taylors-killing-aftermath/story?id=71217247
   Google Scholar
• Comas-Díaz, L., & Jacobsen, F. M. (2001). Ethnocultural allodynia. The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research, 10(4), 246–252.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cooper, H. (2015). War on drugs policing and police brutality. Substance Use & Misuse, 50(8–9), 1188–1194. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826084.2015.1007669
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper, H., & Fullilove, M. (2016). Editorial: Excessive police violence as a public health issue. Journal of Urban Health, 93(S1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-016-0040-2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Correll, J., Park, B., Judd, C. M., Wittenbrink, B., Sadler, M. S., & Keesee, T. (2007). Across the thin blue line: Police officers and racial bias in the decision to shoot. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1006–1023. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crenshaw, K., Gotanda, N., Peller, G., & Thomas, K. (1995). Critical race theory: The key writings that formed the movement. The New Press.
   Google Scholar
• Curtis, D. S., Washburn, T., Lee, H., Smith, K. R., Kim, J., Martz, C. D., Kramer, M. R., & Chae, D. H. (2021). Highly public anti-black violence is associated with poor mental health days for black Americans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(17), e2019624118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2019624118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dart, T. (2019a, October 3). Amber Guyger: Ex-officer sentenced as murdered man’s brother urges healing. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/oct/02/amber-guyger-sentenced-prison-murder-botham-jean
   Google Scholar
• Dart, T. (2019b, October 15). Fort Worth officer who killed black woman in her home charged with murder. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/oct/14/fort-worth-police-shooting-atatiana-jefferson-killed
   Google Scholar
• DeVylder, J. E., Anglin, D. M., Bowleg, L., Fedina, L., & Link, B. G. (2022). Police violence and public health. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 18(1), 527–552. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-072720-020644
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• DeVylder, J. E., Jun, H.-J., Fedina, L., Coleman, D., Anglin, D., Cogburn, C., Link, B., & Barth, R. P. (2018). Association of exposure to police violence with prevalence of mental health symptoms among Urban residents in the United States. Association of exposure to police violence with prevalence of mental health symptoms among Urban residents in the United States. JAMA Network Open, 1(7), e184945. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.4945
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dukes, K. N., & Kahn, K. B. (2017). What social science research says about police violence against racial and ethnic minorities: Understanding the antecedents and consequences—an introduction. Journal of Social Issues, 73(4), 690–700. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12242
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elfenbein, H. A. (2014). The many faces of emotional contagion: An affective process theory of affective linkage. Organizational Psychology Review, 4(4), 326–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041386614542889
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eschholz, S., Blackwell, B. S., Gertz, M., & Chiricos, T. (2002). Race and attitudes toward the police: Assessing the effects of watching “reality” police programs. Journal of Criminal Justice, 30(4), 327–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(02)00133-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferrari, R. (2015). Writing narrative style literature reviews. Medical Writing, 24(4), 230–235. https://doi.org/10.1179/2047480615Z.000000000329
   Google Scholar
• First, J. M., Danforth, L., Frisby, C. M., Warner, B. R., Ferguson, M. W., & Houston, J. B. (2020). Posttraumatic stress related to the killing of Michael Brown and resulting civil unrest in Ferguson, Missouri: Roles of protest engagement, media use, race, and resilience. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, 11(3), 369–391. https://doi.org/10.1086/711162
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Gruen, R. J., & DeLongis, A. (1986). Appraisal, coping, health status, and psychological symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(3), 571–579. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.50.3.571
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaber, N., & Wright, A. (2016). Protecting urban health and safety: Balancing care and harm in the era of mass incarceration. Journal of Urban Health, 93(S1), 68–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-015-0009-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gilbert, K. L., & Ray, R. (2016). Why police kill Black males with impunity: Applying public health critical race praxis (PHCRP) to address the determinants of policing behaviors and “justifiable” homicides in the USA. Journal of Urban Health, 93(S1), 122–140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-015-0005-x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gillon, V. D., (2016). The killing of an ‘angry Black woman’: Sandra Bland and the politics of respectability. https://digitalcommons.augustana.edu/mabryaward/3
   Google Scholar
• Goff, P. A., Jackson, M. C., DiLeone, B. A. L., Culotta, C. M., & DiTomasso, N. A. (2014). The essence of innocence: Consequences of dehumanizing black children. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 106(4), 526–545. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035663
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graff, G. (2017). The intergenerational trauma of slavery and its aftereffects: The question of reparations. Journal of Psychohistory, 44(4), 256–268.
   Google Scholar
• Gramsci, A. (1992). Selections from the prison notebooks. International Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Grills, C. N., Aird, E. G., & Rowe, D. (2016). Breathe, baby, breathe: Clearing the way for the emotional emancipation of Black people. Cultural Studies ↔ Critical Methodologies, 16(3), 333–343. https://doi.org/10.1177/1532708616634839
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen, E. (2017, November 10). The Forgotten Minority in Police Shootings. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2017/11/10/us/native-lives-matter/index.html
   Google Scholar
• Harris, C. I. (1993). Whiteness as property. Harvard Law Review, 106(8), 1707–1791. https://doi.org/10.2307/1341787
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart, C. L. (2020, June 25). We know how George Floyd died. It wasn’t from drugs. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/25/opinion/george-floyd-toxicology-report-drugs.html
   Google Scholar
• Hawkins, D. S. (2021). “After Philando, I had to take a sick day to recover”: Psychological distress, trauma and police brutality in the Black community. Health Communication, 0, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2021.1913838
   Google Scholar
• Hays, Z. R. (2011). Police use of excessive force in disorganized neighborhoods. LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC.
   Google Scholar
• Hemmings, C., & Evans, A. M. (2018). Identifying and treating race-based trauma in counseling. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 46(1), 20–39. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12090
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs, M. S. (2017). The violent state: Black women’s invisible struggle against police violence. William & Mary Journal of Women and the Law, 24(1), 63.
   Google Scholar
• Judd, B. (2019). Sapphire as praxis: Toward a methodology of anger. Feminist Studies, 45(1), 178–208. https://doi.org/10.15767/feministstudies.45.1.0178
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korte, S. M., Koolhaas, J. M., Wingfield, J. C., & McEwen, B. S. (2005). The Darwinian concept of stress: Benefits of allostasis and costs of allostatic load and the trade-offs in health and disease. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 29(1), 3–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.08.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krieger, N., Chen, J. T., Waterman, P. D., Kiang, M. V., & Feldman, J. (2015). Police killings and police deaths are public health data and can be counted. PLoS medicine, 12(12), e1001915. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001915
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company.
   Google Scholar
• Lipscomb, A. (2020). You have the right to exclaim your pain: Honoring Black familial voices impacted by police induced trauma in the united states. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 131–142. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/296
   Google Scholar
• Mapping Police Violence. (2022). Police Violence Map. https://mappingpoliceviolence.org/
   Google Scholar
• McCoy, D. L., & Rodricks, D. J. (2015). Critical race theory in higher Education: 20 years of theoretical and research innovations. ASHE Higher Education Report, 41(3), 1–117. https://doi.org/10.1002/aehe.20021
   Google Scholar
• Mesic, A., Franklin, L., Cansever, A., Potter, F., Sharma, A., Knopov, A., & Siegel, M. (2018). The relationship between structural racism and black-white disparities in fatal police shootings at the state level. Journal of the National Medical Association, 110(2), 106–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnma.2017.12.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell, J., & Chihaya, G. K. (2022). Tract level associations between historical residential redlining and contemporary fatal encounters with police. Social Science & Medicine, 302, 114989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114989
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore, S. E., Robinson, M. A., Clayton, D. M., Adedoyin, A. C., Boamah, D. A., Kyere, E., & Harmon, D. K. (2018). A critical race perspective of police shooting of unharmed Black males in the United States: Implications for social work. Urban Social Work, 2(1), 33–47. https://doi.org/10.1891/2474-8684.2.1.33
   Google Scholar
• Nadal, K. L. (2018). Microaggressions and traumatic stress: Theory, research, and clinical treatment. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000073-000
   Google Scholar
• National Public Radio. (2023, February 3). A 6th Memphis police officer has been fired after the beating death of Tyre Nichols. https://www.npr.org/2023/02/03/1154427779/tyre-nichols-memphis-police-officer-fired-preston-hemphill
   Google Scholar
• New York Civil Liberties Union. (2021). Stop-And-Frisk Data. https://www.nyclu.org/en/stop-and-Frisk-data
   Google Scholar
• Owusu-Bempah, A. (2017). Race and policing in historical context: Dehumanization and the policing of Black people in the 21st century. Theoretical Criminology, 21(1), 23–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480616677493
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polanco-Roman, L., Danies, A., & Anglin, D. M. (2016). Racial discrimination as race-based trauma, coping strategies and dissociative symptoms among emerging adults. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 8(5), 609–617. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000125
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson, M. A. (2017). Black bodies on the ground: Policing disparities in the African American community—an analysis of newsprint from January 1, 2015, through December 31, 2015. Journal of Black Studies, 48(6), 551–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934717702134
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sewell, W., Horsford, C. E., Coleman, K., & Watkins, C. S. (2016). Vile vigilance: An integrated theoretical framework for understanding the state of black surveillance. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 26(3–4), 287–302. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2015.1127735
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sewell, A. A., & Jefferson, K. A. (2016). Collateral damage: The health effects of invasive police encounters in New York City. Journal of Urban Health, 93(S1), 42–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-015-0016-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharpe, T. L. (2015). Understanding the sociocultural context of coping for African American family members of homicide victims: A conceptual model. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 16(1), 48–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838013515760
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smiley, C., & Fakunle, D. (2016). From “brute” to “thug:” the demonization and criminalization of unarmed Black male victims in America. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 26(3–4), 350–366. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2015.1129256
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith Lee, J. R., & Robinson, M. A. (2019). “That’s my number one fear in life. It’s the police”: Examining young black men’s exposures to trauma and loss resulting from police violence and police killings. Journal of Black Psychology, 45(3), 143–184. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798419865152
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staggers-Hakim, R. (2016). The nation’s unprotected children and the ghost of Mike Brown, or the impact of national police killings on the health and social development of African American boys. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 26(3–4), 390–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2015.1132864
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stelter, M., Essien, I., Sander, C., & Degner, J. (2022). Racial bias in police traffic stops: White residents’ county-level prejudice and stereotypes are related to disproportionate stopping of black drivers. Psychological Science, 33(4), 483–496. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211051272
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stinson, P. M. (2017). Police shootings data: What we know and what we don’t know. Criminal Justice Faculty Publications, 78, 1–45. Retrieved from. https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/crim_just_pub/78/
   Google Scholar
• Swaine, J., & McCarthy, C. (2017, January 8). Young black men again faced highest rate of US police killings in 2016. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/jan/08/the-counted-police-killings-2016-young-black-men
   Google Scholar
• Talbert, R. D. (2022). Lethal police encounters and cardiovascular health among Black Americans. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 10(4), 1756–1767. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-022-01359-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thrasher, S. W. (2015, December 29). Tamir Rice was killed by white America’s irrational fear of black boys. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/dec/29/tamir-rice-killed-by-white-americas-irrational-fear-black-boys
   Google Scholar
• Tsai, A. C., & Venkataramani, A. S. (2015). Communal bereavement and resilience in the aftermath of a terrorist event: Evidence from a natural experiment. Social Science & Medicine, 146, 155–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.10.050
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Kolk, B. A. (2014). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. Viking.
   Google Scholar
• Watson, L. B., Robinson, D., Dispenza, F., & Nazari, N. (2012). African American women’s sexual objectification experiences: A qualitative study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36(4), 458–475. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312454724
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, M. T., Malcoun, E., Sawyer, B. A., Davis, D. M., Nouri, L. B., & Bruce, S. L. (2014). Cultural adaptations of prolonged exposure therapy for treatment and prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder in African Americans. Behavioral Science, 4(2), 102–124. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs4020102
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Williams, M. T., Osman, M., Gran-Ruaz, S., & Lopez, J. (2021). Intersection of racism and PTSD: Assessment and treatment of racial stress and trauma. Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry, 8(4), 167–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40501-021-00250-2
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, B. L., Wolfer, T. A., Wooten, N. R., Pitner, R., Moore, S. E., & Anders, A. D. (2023). “Am I next?”: A qualitative study of Black college students’ experiences of stress, trauma, and grief from exposures to police killings. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2023.2173353
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar