Advanced search
Publication Cover
Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B
Critical Reviews
Volume 11, 2008 - Issue 5-6: Epidemiologic Evidence of Relationships Between Reproductive and Child Health Outcomes and Environmental Chemical Contaminants
Submit an article Journal homepage
4,551
Views
343
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Epidemiologic Evidence of Relationships Between Reproductive and Child Health Outcomes and Environmental Chemical Contaminants

Donald T. Wigle McLaughlin Centre for Population Health Risk Assessment, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, OntarioCorrespondence[email protected]
,
Tye E. Arbuckle Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario
,
Michelle C. Turner McLaughlin Centre for Population Health Risk Assessment, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario
,
Annie Bérubé Vulnerable Populations Division, Safe Environments Program, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario
,
Qiuying Yang OMNI Research Group, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa and Ottawa Health Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario
,
Shiliang Liu Centre for Healthy Human Development, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
&
Daniel Krewski McLaughlin Centre for Population Health Risk Assessment, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario
 show all
Pages 373-517 | Published online: 09 May 2008

REFERENCES

  • Abadi-Korek , I. , Stark , B. , Zaizov , R. and Shaham , J. 2006 . Parental occupational exposure and the risk of acute lymphoblastic leukemia in offspring in Israel . J. Occup. Environ. Med. , 48 : 165 – 174 .
  • Abell , A. , Juul , S. and Bonde , J. P. 2000 . Time to pregnancy among female greenhouse workers . Scand. J. Work Environ Health , 26 : 131 – 136 .
  • Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 1999a. Toxicological profile for cadmium. Located http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp5.html
  • Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 1999b. Toxicological profile for lead. Located http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp13.pdf
  • Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 2000a. Toxicological profile for arsenic. Located http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp2.html
  • Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 2000b. Toxicological profile for manganese. Located http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp151.html
  • Agnesi , R. , Valentini , F. and Mastrangelo , G. 1997 . Risk of spontaneous abortion and maternal exposure to organic solvents in the shoe industry . Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health , 69 : 311 – 316 .
  • Ahlborg , G. Jr. , Axelsson , G. and Bodin , L. 1996 . Shift work, nitrous oxide exposure and subfertility among Swedish midwives . Int. J. Epidemiol. , 25 : 783 – 790 .
  • Ahlborg , G. Jr. and Bodin , L. 1991 . Tobacco smoke exposure and pregnancy outcome among working women. A prospective study at prenatal care centers in Orebro County, Sweden . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 133 : 338 – 347 .
  • Ahmad , S. A. , Sayed , M. H. , Barua , S. , Khan , M. H. , Faruquee , M. H. , Jalil , A. , Hadi , S. A. and Talukder , H. K. 2001 . Arsenic in drinking water and pregnancy outcomes . Environ. Health Perspect. , 109 : 629 – 631 .
  • Alaluusua , S. , Calderara , P. , Gerthoux , P. M. , Lukinmaa , P. L. , Kovero , O. , Needham , L. , Patterson , D. G. Jr , Tuomisto , J. and Mocarelli , P. 2004 . Developmental dental aberrations after the dioxin accident in S.eveso . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 1313 – 1318 .
  • Alaluusua , S. , Kiviranta , H. , Leppaniemi , A. , Holtta , P. , Lukinmaa , P. L. , Lope , L. , Jarvenpaa , A. L. , Renlund , M. , Toppari , J. , Virtanen , H. , Kaleva , M. and Vartiainen , T. 2002 . Natal and neonatal teeth in relation to environmental toxicants . Pediatr. Res. , 52 : 652 – 655 .
  • Alaluusua , S. , Lukinmaa , P. L. , Torppa , J. , Tuomisto , J. and Vartiainen , T. 1999 . Developing teeth as biomarker of dioxin exposure . Lancet , 353 : 206
  • Alderton , L. E. , Spector , L. G. , Blair , C. K. , Roesler , M. , Olshan , A. F. , Robison , L. L. and Ross , J. A. 2006 . Child and maternal household chemical exposure and the risk of acute leukemia in children with Down's syndrome: A report from the Children's Oncology Group . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 164 : 212 – 221 .
  • Alexander , B. H. , Checkoway , H. , Van Netten , C. , Kaufman , J. D. , Vaughan , T. L. , Mueller , B. A. and Faustman , E. M. 1996 . Paternal occupational lead exposure and pregnancy outcome . Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health , 2 : 280 – 285 .
  • Alexander , F. E. , Patheal , S. L. , Biondi , A. , Brandalise , S. , Cabrera , M. E. , Chan , L. C. , Chen , Z. , Cimino , G. , Cordoba , J. C. , Gu , L. J. , Hussein , H. , Ishii , E. , Kamel , A. M. , Labra , S. , Magalhaes , I. Q. , Mizutani , S. , Petridou , E. , de Oliveira , M. P. , Yuen , P. , Wiemels , J. L. and Greaves , M. F. 2001 . Transplacental chemical exposure and risk of infant leukemia with MLL gene fusion . Cancer Res. , 61 : 2542 – 2546 .
  • Almqvist , C. , Pershagen , G. and Wickman , M. 2005 . Low socioeconomic status as a risk factor for asthma, rhinitis and sensitization at 4 years in a birth cohort . Clin. Exp. Allergy , 35 : 612 – 618 .
  • Altmann , L. , Sveinsson , K. , Kramer , U. , Weishoff-Houben , M. , Turfeld , M. , Winneke , G. and Wiegand , H. 1998 . Visual functions in 6-year-old children in relation to lead and mercury levels . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 20 : 9 – 17 .
  • American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Environmental Health . 2003 . Pediatric environmental health , Elk Grove Village, IL : American Academy of Pediatrics .
  • American Cancer Society. 2006. Cancer Facts & Figures 2006. Located http://www.cancer.org/downloads/STT/CAFF2006PWSecured.pdf
  • Amin-Zaki , L. , Elhassani , S. , Majeed , M. A. , Clarkson , T. W. , Doherty , R. A. and Greenwood , M. 1974a . Intra-uterine methylmercury poisoning in Iraq . Pediatrics , 54 : 587 – 595 .
  • Amin-Zaki , L. , Elhassani , S. , Majeed , M. A. , Clarkson , T. W. , Doherty , R. A. and Greenwood , M. R. 1974b . Studies of infants postnatally exposed to methylmercury . J. Pediatr. , 85 : 81 – 84 .
  • Amin-Zaki , L. , Majeed , M. A. , Clarkson , T. W. and Greenwood , M. R. 1978 . Methylmercury poisoning in Iraqi children: Clinical observations over two years . Br. Med. J. , 1 : 613 – 616 .
  • Amin-Zaki , L. , Majeed , M. A. , Elhassani , S. B. , Clarkson , T. W. , Greenwood , M. R. and Doherty , R. A. 1979 . Prenatal methylmercury poisoning. Clinical observations over five years . Am. J. Dis. Child. , 133 : 172 – 177 .
  • Amin-Zaki , L. , Majeed , M. A. , Greenwood , M. R. , Elhassani , S. B. , Clarkson , T. W. and Doherty , R. A. 1981 . Methylmercury poisoning in the Iraqi suckling infant: A longitudinal study over five years . J. Appl. Toxicol. , 1 : 210 – 214 .
  • Anderson , H. R. and Cook , D. G. 1997 . Passive smoking and sudden infant death syndrome: Review of the epidemiological evidence . Thorax , 52 : 1003 – 1009 .
  • Andrews , K. W. , Savitz , D. A. and Hertz-Picciotto , I. 1994 . Prenatal lead exposure in relation to gestational age and birth weight: A review of epidemiologic studies . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 26 : 13 – 32 .
  • Annest , JL , Pirkle , JL , Makuc , D , Neese , JW , Bayse , DD and Kovar , MG. 1983 . Chronological trend in blood lead levels between 1976 and 1980 . N Engl J Med , 308 : 1373 – 1377 .
  • Anttila , A. and Sallmen , M. 1995 . Effects of parental occupational exposure to lead and other metals on spontaneous abortion . J. Occup. Environ. Med. , 37 : 915 – 921 .
  • Arbuckle , T. E. , Lin , Z. and Mery , L. S. 2001 . An exploratory analysis of the effect of pesticide exposure on the risk of spontaneous abortion in an Ontario farm population . Environ. Health Perspect. , 109 : 851 – 857 .
  • Arbuckle , T. E. , Savitz , D. A. , Mery , L. S. and Curtis , K. M. 1999 . Exposure to phenoxy herbicides and the risk of spontaneous abortion . Epidemiology , 10 : 752 – 760 .
  • Arbuckle , T. E. and Sever , L. E. 1998 . Pesticide exposures and fetal death: A review of the epidemiologic literature . Crit. Rev. Toxicol. , 28 : 229 – 270 .
  • Arbuckle , T. E. , Sherman , G. J. , Corey , P. N. , Walters , D. and Lo , B. 1988 . Water nitrates and CNS birth defects: A population-based case-control study . Arch. Environ. Health , 43 : 162 – 167 .
  • Arias , E. and Smith , B. L. 2003 . Deaths: Preliminary data for 2001 . Natl. Vital Stat. Rep. , 51 : 1 – 45 .
  • Aschengrau , A. , Zierler , S. and Cohen , A. 1989 . Quality of community drinking water and the occurrence of spontaneous abortion . Arch. Environ. Health , 44 : 283 – 290 .
  • Aschengrau , A. , Zierler , S. and Cohen , A. 1993 . Quality of community drinking water and the occurrence of late adverse pregnancy outcomes . Arch. Environ. Health , 48 : 105 – 113 .
  • Atuma , S. S. , Hansson , L. , Johnsson , H. , Slorach , S. , de Wit , C. A. and Lindstrom , G. 1998 . Organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins in human milk from Swedish mothers . Food Addit. Contam. , 15 : 142 – 150 .
  • Axmon , A. , Rylander , L. , Stromberg , U. and Hagmar , L. 2000 . Miscarriages and stillbirths in women with a high intake of fish contaminated with persistent organochlorine compounds . Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health , 73 : 204 – 208 .
  • Axmon , A. , Rylander , L. , Stromberg , U. , Jonsson , B. , Nilsson-Ehle , P. and Hagmar , L. 2004 . Polychlorinated biphenyls in serum and time to pregnancy . Environ. Res. , 96 : 186 – 195 .
  • Axtell , C. D. , Cox , C. , Myers , G. J. , Davidson , P. W. , Choi , A. L. , Cernichiari , E. , Sloane-Reeves , J. , Shamlaye , C. F. and Clarkson , T. W. 2000 . Association between methylmercury exposure from fish consumption and child development at five and a half years of age in the Seychelles Child Development Study: An evaluation of nonlinear relationships . Environ. Res. , 84 : 71 – 80 .
  • Axtell , C. D. , Myers , G. J. , Davidson , P. W. , Choi , A. L. , Cernichiari , E. , Sloane-Reeves , J. , Cox , C. , Shamlaye , C. and Clarkson , T. W. 1998 . Semiparametric modeling of age at achieving developmental milestones after prenatal exposure to methylmercury in the Seychelles child development study . Environ. Health Perspect. , 106 : 559 – 563 .
  • Baghurst , P. A. , McMichael , A. J. , Wigg , N. R. , Vimpani , G. V. , Robertson , E. F. , Roberts , R. J. and Tong , S. L. 1992 . Environmental exposure to lead and children's intelligence at the age of seven years. The Port Pirie Cohort Study . N. Engl. J. Med. , 327 : 1279 – 1284 .
  • Baghurst , P. A. , Robertson , E. F. , Oldfield , R. K. , King , B. M. , McMichael , A. J. , Vimpani , G. V. and Wigg , N. R. 1991 . Lead in the placenta, membranes, and umbilical cord in relation to pregnancy outcome in a lead-smelter community . Environ. Health Perspect. , 90 : 315 – 320 .
  • Baibergenova , A. , Kudyakov , R. , Zdeb , M. and Carpenter , D. O. 2003 . Low birth weight and residential proximity to PCB-contaminated waste sites . Environ. Health Perspect. , 111 : 1352 – 1357 .
  • Baird , D. D. , Wilcox , A. J. and Weinberg , C. R. 1986 . Use of time to pregnancy to study environmental exposures . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 124 : 470 – 480 .
  • Ballew , C. , Khan , L. K. , Kaufmann , R. , Mokdad , A. , Miller , D. T. and Gunter , E. W. 1999 . Blood lead concentration and children's anthropometric dimensions in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III), 1988–1994 . J. Pediatr. , 134 : 623 – 630 .
  • Banks , E. C. , Ferretti , L. E. and Shucard , D. W. 1997 . Effects of low level lead exposure on cognitive function in children: A review of behavioral, neuropsychological and biological evidence . Neurotoxicology , 18 : 237 – 281 .
  • Bell , E. M. , Hertz-Picciotto , I. and Beaumont , J. J. 2001a . A case-control study of pesticides and fetal death due to congenital anomalies . Epidemiology , 12 : 148 – 156 .
  • Bell , E. M. , Hertz-Picciotto , I. and Beaumont , J. J. 2001b . Pesticides and fetal death due to congenital anomalies: Implications of an erratum . Epidemiology , 12 : 595 – 596 .
  • Bell , E. M. , Hertz-Picciotto , I. and Beaumont , J. J. 2001c . Case-cohort analysis of agricultural pesticide applications near maternal residence and selected causes of fetal death . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 154 : 702 – 710 .
  • Bellinger , D. , Leviton , A. , Allred , E. and Rabinowitz , M. 1994 . Pre- and postnatal lead exposure and behavior problems in school-aged children . Environ. Res. , 66 : 12 – 30 .
  • Bellinger , D. , Leviton , A. , Rabinowitz , M. , Allred , E. , Needleman , H. and Schoenbaum , S. 1991 . Weight gain and maturity in fetuses exposed to low levels of lead . Environ. Res. , 54 : 151 – 158 .
  • Bellinger , D. , Leviton , A. , Waternaux , C. , Needleman , H. and Rabinowitz , M. 1988 . Low-level lead exposure, social class, and infant development . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 10 : 497 – 503 .
  • Bellinger , D. , Sloman , J. , Leviton , A. , Rabinowitz , M. , Needleman , H. L. and Waternaux , C. 1991 . Low-level lead exposure and children's cognitive function in the preschool years . Pediatrics , 87 : 219 – 227 .
  • Bellinger , D. C. 2004 . Lead . Pediatrics , 113 : 1016 – 1022 .
  • Bellinger , D. C. 2005 . Teratogen update: Lead and pregnancy . Birth Defects Res. A Clin. Mol. Teratol. , 73 : 409 – 420 .
  • Bellinger , D. C. and Needleman , H. L. 2003 . Intellectual impairment and blood lead levels . N. Engl. J. Med. , 349 : 500 – 502 .
  • Bellinger , D. C. , Needleman , H. L. , Leviton , A. , Waternaux , C. , Rabinowitz , M. B. and Nichols , M. L. 1984 . Early sensory-motor development and prenatal exposure to lead . Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol. , 6 : 387 – 402 .
  • Bellinger , D. C. , Stiles , K. M. and Needleman , H. L. 1992 . Low-level lead exposure, intelligence and academic achievement: A long-term follow-up study . Pediatrics , 90 : 855 – 861 .
  • Berkowitz , G. S. , Wetmur , J. G. , Birman-Deych , E. , Obel , J. , Lapinski , R. H. , Godbold , J. H. , Holzman , I. R. and Wolff , M. S. 2004 . In utero pesticide exposure, maternal paraoxonase activity, and head circumference . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 388 – 391 .
  • Berkowitz , Z. , Price-Green , P. , Bove , F. J. and Kaye , W. E. 2006 . Lead exposure and birth outcomes in five communities in Shoshone County, Idaho . Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health , 209 : 123 – 132 .
  • Berlin , C. M. Jr. , Kacew , S. , Lawrence , R. , LaKind , J. S. and Campbell , R. 2002 . Criteria for chemical selection for programs on human milk surveillance and research for environmental chemicals . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 65 : 1839 – 1851 .
  • Bernard , A. , Carbonnelle , S. , de Burbure , C. , Michel , O. and Nickmilder , M. 2006 . Chlorinated pool attendance, atopy, and the risk of asthma during childhood . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 1567 – 1573 .
  • Bernard , A. , Carbonnelle , S. , Michel , O. , Higuet , S. , De Burbure , C. , Buchet , J. P. , Hermans , C. , Dumont , X. and Doyle , I. 2003 . Lung hyperpermeability and asthma prevalence in schoolchildren: Unexpected associations with the attendance at indoor chlorinated swimming pools . Occup. Environ. Med. , 60 : 385 – 394 .
  • Bernard , A. M. , Vyskocil , A. , Roels , H. , Kriz , J. , Kodl , M. and Lauwerys , R. 1995 . Renal effects in children living in the vicinity of a lead smelter . Environ. Res. , 68 : 91 – 95 .
  • Bernard , S. M. and McGeehin , M. A. 2003 . Prevalence of blood lead levels 5+ microg/dl among US children 1 to 5 years of age and socioeconomic and demographic factors associated with blood of lead levels 5 to 10 microg/dl, Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994 . Pediatrics , 112 : 1308 – 1313 .
  • Berry , M. and Bove , F. 1997 . Birth weight reduction associated with residence near a hazardous waste landfill . Environ. Health Perspect. , 105 : 856 – 861 .
  • Bérubé , A. 2006 . Toward an economic analysis of the environmental burden of disease among Canadian children . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B , 10 : 131 – 142 .
  • Bhatia , R. , Shiau , R. , Petreas , M. , Weintraub , J. M. , Farhang , L. and Eskenazi , B. 2005 . Organochlorine pesticides and male genital anomalies in the child health and development studies . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 220 – 224 .
  • Binkova, B., Bobak, M., Chatterjee, A., Chauhan, A. J., Dejmek, J., Dockery, D. W., Everard, M., Forastiere, F., Gilliland, F., Holgate, S., Johnston, S., Krzyanowski, M., Kuna-Dibbert, B., Maynard, R., Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Samet, J., Šrám, R. J., Walters, D., Weiland, S. K., and Winneke, G. 2005. Effects of air pollution on children's health and development: A review of the evidence. World Health Organization, European Centre for Environment and Health, Bonn Office. Located http://www.euro.who.int/document/E86575.pdf
  • Birnbaum , L. S. 1995 . Developmental effects of dioxins . Environ. Health Perspect. , 103 ( Suppl. 7 ) : 89 – 94 .
  • Blanck , H. M. , Marcus , M. , Rubin , C. , Tolbert , P. E. , Hertzberg , V. S. , Henderson , A. K. and Zhang , R. H. 2002 . Growth in girls exposed in utero and postnatally to polybrominated biphenyls and polychlorinated biphenyls . Epidemiology , 13 : 205 – 210 .
  • Blanck , H. M. , Marcus , M. , Tolbert , P. E. , Rubin , C. , Henderson , A. K. , Hertzberg , V. S. , Zhang , R. H. and Cameron , L. 2000 . Age at menarche and tanner stage in girls exposed in utero and postnatally to polybrominated biphenyl . Epidemiology , 11 : 641 – 647 .
  • Blanco Munoz , J. , Lacasana , M. , Borja Aburto , V. H. , Torres Sanchez , L. E. , Garcia Garcia , A. M. and Lopez Carrillo , L. 2005 . Socioeconomic factors and the risk of anencephaly in a Mexican population: A case-control study . Public Health Rep. , 120 : 39 – 45 .
  • Blatter , B. M. , Hermens , R. , Bakker , M. , Roeleveld , N. , Verbeek , A. L. and Zielhuis , G. A. 1997 . Paternal occupational exposure around conception and spina bifida in offspring . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 32 : 283 – 291 .
  • Blatter , B. M. , Roeleveld , N. , Zielhuis , G. A. , Gabreels , F. J. and Verbeek , A. L. 1996a . Maternal occupational exposure during pregnancy and the risk of spina bifida . Occup. Environ. Med. , 53 : 80 – 86 .
  • Blatter , B. M. , Roeleveld , N. , Zielhuis , G. A. , Mullaart , R. A. and Gabreels , F. J. 1996b . Spina bifida and parental occupation . Epidemiology , 7 : 188 – 193 .
  • Bobak , M. and Leon , D. A. 1999 . Pregnancy outcomes and outdoor air pollution: An ecological study in districts of the Czech Republic 1986–8 . Occup. Environ. Med. , 56 : 539 – 543 .
  • Boffetta , P. , Tredaniel , J. and Greco , A. 2000 . Risk of childhood cancer and adult lung cancer after childhood exposure to passive smoke: A meta-analysis . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 : 73 – 82 .
  • Bolumar , F. , Olsen , J. and Boldsen , J. 1996 . Smoking reduces fecundity: A European multicenter study on infertility and subfecundity. The European Study Group on Infertility and Subfecundity . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 143 : 578 – 587 .
  • Bonde , J. P. , Joffe , M. , Apostoli , P. , Dale , A. , Kiss , P. , Spano , M. , Caruso , F. , Giwercman , A. , Bisanti , L. , Porru , S. , Vanhoorne , M. , Comhaire , F. and Zschiesche , W. 2002 . Sperm count and chromatin structure in men exposed to inorganic lead: Lowest adverse effect levels . Occup. Environ. Med. , 59 : 234 – 242 .
  • Borja-Aburto , V. H. , Hertz-Picciotto , I. , Rojas Lopez , M. , Farias , P. , Rios , C. and Blanco , J. 1999 . Blood lead levels measured prospectively and risk of spontaneous abortion . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 150 : 590 – 597 .
  • Bornehag , C. G. , Sundell , J. , Weschler , C. J. , Sigsgaard , T. , Lundgren , B. , Hasselgren , M. and Hagerhed-Engman , L. 2004 . The association between asthma and allergic symptoms in children and phthalates in house dust: A nested case-control study . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 1393 – 1397 .
  • Borzsonyi , M. , Bereczky , A. , Rudnai , P. , Csanady , M. and Horvath , A. 1992 . Epidemiological studies on human subjects exposed to arsenic in drinking water in southeast Hungary (letter to the editor) . Arch. Toxicol. , 66 : 77 – 78 .
  • Bound , J. P. , Harvey , P. W. , Francis , B. J. , Awwad , F. and Gatrell , A. C. 1997 . Involvement of deprivation and environmental lead in neural tube defects: A matched case-control study . Arch. Dis. Child. , 76 : 107 – 112 .
  • Bove , F. , Shim , Y. and Zeitz , P. 2002 . Drinking water contaminants and adverse pregnancy outcomes: A review . Environ. Health Perspect. , 110 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 61 – 74 .
  • Bove , F. J. , Fulcomer , M. C. , Klotz , J. B. , Esmart , J. , Dufficy , E. M. and Savrin , J. E. 1995 . Public drinking water contamination and birth outcomes . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 141 : 850 – 862 .
  • Boyle , E. , Johnson , H. , Kelly , A. and McDonnell , R. 2004 . Congenital anomalies and proximity to landfill sites . Ir. Med. J. , 97 : 16 – 18 .
  • Brauer , M. , Gehring , U. , Brunekreef , B. , de Jongste , J. , Gerritsen , J. , Rovers , M. , Wichmann , H. E. , Wijga , A. and Heinrich , J. 2006 . Traffic-related air pollution and otitis media . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 1414 – 1418 .
  • Brauer , M. , Hoek , G. , Van Vliet , P. , Meliefste , K. , Fischer , P. H. , Wijga , A. , Koopman , L. P. , Neijens , H. J. , Gerritsen , J. , Kerkhof , M. , Heinrich , J. , Bellander , T. and Brunekreef , B. 2002 . Air pollution from traffic and the development of respiratory infections and asthmatic and allergic symptoms in children . Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. , 166 : 1092 – 1098 .
  • Brender , J. , Suarez , L. , Hendricks , K. , Baetz , R. A. and Larsen , R. 2002 . Parental occupation and neural tube defect-affected pregnancies among Mexican Americans . J. Occup. Environ. Med. , 44 : 650 – 656 .
  • Brender , J. D. , Olive , J. M. , Felkner , M. , Suarez , L. , Marckwardt , W. and Hendricks , K. A. 2004 . Dietary nitrites and nitrates, nitrosatable drugs, and neural tube defects . Epidemiology , 15 : 330 – 336 .
  • Brender , J. D. and Suarez , L. 1990 . Paternal occupation and anencephaly . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 131 : 517 – 521 .
  • Brender , J. D. , Suarez , L. , Felkner , M. , Gilani , Z. , Stinchcomb , D. , Moody , K. , Henry , J. and Hendricks , K. 2006 . Maternal exposure to arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury and neural tube defects in offspring . Environ. Res. , 101 : 132 – 139 .
  • Briggs , N. C. , Levine , R. S. , Hall , H. I. , Cosby , O. , Brann , E. A. and Hennekens , C. H. 2003 . Occupational risk factors for selected cancers among African American and White men in the United States . Am. J. Public Health , 93 : 1748 – 1752 .
  • Brouwer , A. , Ahlborg , U. G. , Van den Berg , M. , Birnbaum , L. S. , Boersma , E. R. , Bosveld , B. , Denison , M. S. , Gray , L. E. , Hagmar , L. , Holene , E. , Huisman , M. , Jacobson , S. W. , Jacobson , J. L. , Koopman-Esseboom , C. , Koppe , J. G. , Kulig , B. M. , Morse , D. C. , Muckle , G. , Peterson , R. E. , Sauer , P. J. J. , Seegal , R. F. , Smits-Van Prooije , A. E. , Touwen , B. C. L. , Weisglas-Kuperus , N. and Winneke , G. 1995 . Functional aspects of developmental toxicity of polyhalogenated aromatic hydrocarbons in experimental animals and human infants . Eur. J. Pharmacol. , 293 : 1 – 40 .
  • Brouwer , A. , Ahlborg , U. G. , van Leeuwen , F. X. and Feeley , M. M. 1998 . Report of the WHO working group on the assessment of health risks for human infants from exposure to PCDDs, PCDFs and PCBs . Chemosphere , 37 : 1627 – 1643 .
  • Brown , R. C. 2006 . Review: Windows of exposure to pesticides for increased risk of childhood leukemia . Toxicol. Environ. Chem. , 88 : 423 – 433 .
  • Bruce , N. , Perez-Padilla , R. and Albalak , R. 2002 . “ The health effects of indoor air pollution exposure in developing countries (WHO/SDE/OEH/02.05) ” . Geneva : World Health Organization .
  • Buckley , J. D. , Meadows , A. T. , Kadin , M. E. , Le Beau , M. M. , Siegel , S. and Robison , L. L. 2000 . Pesticide exposures in children with nonHodgkin lymphoma . Cancer , 89 : 2315 – 2321 .
  • Buckley , J. D. , Robison , L. L. , Swotinsky , R. , Garabrant , D. H. , LeBeau , M. , Manchester , P. , Nesbit , M. E. , Odom , L. , Peters , J. M. Woods , W. G. 1989 . Occupational exposures of parents of children with acute nonlymphocytic leukemia: A report from the Childrens Cancer Study Group . Cancer Res. , 49 : 4030 – 4037 .
  • Budtz-Jorgensen , E. , Grandjean , P. , Keiding , N. , White , R. F. and Weihe , P. 2000 . Benchmark dose calculations of methylmercury-associated neurobehavioural deficits . Toxicol. Lett. , : 112 – 113 . 193 – 199 .
  • Buffler , P. A. , Kwan , M. L. , Reynolds , P. and Urayama , K. Y. 2005 . Environmental and genetic risk factors for childhood leukemia: Appraising the evidence . Cancer Invest. , 23 : 60 – 75 .
  • Bukowski , J. , Somers , G. and Bryanton , J. 2001 . Agricultural contamination of groundwater as a possible risk factor for growth restriction or prematurity . J. Occup. Environ. Med. , 43 : 377 – 383 .
  • Bull , N. , Riise , T. and Moen , B. E. 1999 . Influence of paternal exposure to oil and oil products on time to pregnancy and spontaneous abortions . Occup. Med. Lond. , 49 : 371 – 376 .
  • Bunin , G. R. , Buckley , J. D. , Boesel , C. P. , Rorke , L. B. and Meadows , A. T. 1994 . Risk factors for astrocytic glioma and primitive neuroectodermal tumor of the brain in young children: A report from the Children's Cancer Group . Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. , 3 : 197 – 204 .
  • Bunin , G. R. , Petrakova , A. , Meadows , A. T. , Emanuel , B. S. , Buckley , J. D. , Woods , W. G. and Hammond , G. D. 1990 . Occupations of parents of children with retinoblastoma: A report from the Children's Cancer Study Group . Cancer Res. , 50 : 7129 – 7133 .
  • Burns , J. M. , Baghurst , P. A. , Sawyer , M. G. , McMichael , A. J. and Tong , S. L. 1999 . Lifetime low-level exposure to environmental lead and children's emotional and behavioral development at ages 11–13 years. The Port Pirie Cohort Study . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 149 : 740 – 749 .
  • Byers , R. K. and Lord , E. E. 1943 . Late effects of lead poisoning on mental development . Am. J. Dis. Child. , 66 : 471 – 494 .
  • Caceres Udina , M. J. , Alvarez , Martinez , Argente , J. A. , del Castillo , J. , Chumilla Valderas , M. A. , Fernandez Alvarez , E. , Garrido Romera , A. , Sanchez Gascon , F. and Garcia-Marcos , L. 2004 . Incidence, air pollution and risk factors of acute otitis media in the first year of life: A prospective study . An. Pediatr. Barc. , 60 : 133 – 138 .
  • Calafat , A. M. , Kuklenyik , Z. , Reidy , J. A. , Caudill , S. P. , Ekong , J. and Needham , L. L. 2005 . Urinary concentrations of bisphenol A and 4-nonylphenol in a human reference population . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 391 – 395 .
  • Calderon , J. , Navarro , M. E. , Jimenez-Capdeville , M. E. , Santos-Diaz , M. A. , Golden , A. , Rodriguez-Leyva , I. , Borja-Aburto , V. and Diaz-Barriga , F. 2001 . Exposure to arsenic and lead and neuropsychological development in Mexican children . Environ. Res. , 85 : 69 – 76 .
  • California Environmental Protection Agency. 2005. Proposed identication of environmental tobacco smoke as a toxic air contaminant. Located http://www.arb.ca.gov/toxics/ets/finalreport/finalreport.htm
  • Campbell , J. R. , Moss , M. E. and Raubertas , R. F. 2000 . The association between caries and childhood lead exposure . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 : 1099 – 1102 .
  • Can , A. , Semiz , O. and Cinar , O. 2005 . Bisphenol-A induces cell cycle delay and alters centrosome and spindle microtubular organization in oocytes during meiosis . Mol. Hum. Reprod. , 11 : 389 – 396 .
  • Canfield , R. L. , Henderson , C. R. Jr , Cory-Slechta , D. A. , Cox , C. , Jusko , T. A. and Lanphear , B. P. 2003 . Intellectual impairment in children with blood lead concentrations below 10 microg per deciliter . N. Engl. J. Med. , 348 : 1517 – 1526 .
  • Carbone , P. , Giordano , F. , Nori , F. , Mantovani , A. , Taruscio , D. , Lauria , L. and Figa-Talamanca , I. 2007 . The possible role of endocrine disrupting chemicals in the aetiology of cryptorchidism and hypospadias: A population-based case-control study in rural Sicily . Int. J. Androl. , 30 : 3 – 13 .
  • Carpenter , R. G. , Irgens , L. M. , Blair , P. S. , England , P. D. , Fleming , P. , Huber , J. , Jorch , G. and Schreuder , P. 2004 . Sudden unexplained infant death in 20 regions in Europe: Case control study . Lancet , 363 : 185 – 191 .
  • Cedergren , M. I. , Selbing , A. J. , Lofman , O. and Kallen , B. A. 2002 . Chlorination byproducts and nitrate in drinking water and risk for congenital cardiac defects . Environ. Res. , 89 : 124 – 130 .
  • Centers for Disease Control . 1989 . Centers for Disease Control Vietnam Experience Study. Health status of Vietnam veterans. Vol. V. Reproductive outcomes and child health , Atlanta, GA : Center for Environmental Health and Injury Control, Centers for Disease Control, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services .
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2004 . Racial/ethnic trends in fetal mortality—United States, 1990–2000 . Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep. , 53 : 529 – 532 .
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2005a. Metropolitan Atlanta Congenital Defects Program. Located http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/bd/macdp.htm
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2005b. Third national report on human exposures to environmental chemicals. Located http://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/3rd/default.htm
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2006. Lead: Questions and answers. Located http://www.cdc.gov/lead/
  • Chaix , B. , Gustafsson , S. , Jerrett , M. , Kristersson , H. , Lithman , T. , Boalt , A. and Merlo , J. 2006 . Children's exposure to nitrogen dioxide in Sweden: Investigating environmental injustice in an egalitarian country . J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health , 60 : 234 – 241 .
  • Chang , J. S. , Selvin , S. , Metayer , C. , Crouse , V. , Golembesky , A. and Buffler , P. A. 2006 . Parental smoking and the risk of childhood leukemia . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 163 : 1091 – 1100 .
  • Chao , W. Y. , Hsu , C. C. and Guo , Y. L. 1997 . Middle-ear disease in children exposed prenatally to polychlorinated biphenyls and polychlorinated dibenzofurans . Arch. Environ. Health , 52 : 257 – 262 .
  • Chen , A. , Dietrich , K. N. , Ware , J. H. , Radcliffe , J. and Rogan , W. J. 2005 . IQ and blood lead from 2 to 7 years of age: Are the effects in older children the residual of high blood lead concentrations in 2-year-olds? . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 597 – 601 .
  • Chen , L. , Yang , W. , Jennison , B. L. , Goodrich , A. and Omaye , S. T. 2002a . Air pollution and birth weight in northern Nevada, 1991–1999 . Inhal. Toxicol. , 14 : 141 – 157 .
  • Chen , P. C. , Hsieh , G. Y. , Wang , J. D. and Cheng , T. J. 2002b . Prolonged time to pregnancy in female workers exposed to ethylene glycol ethers in semiconductor manufacturing . Epidemiology , 13 : 191 – 196 .
  • Chen , P. C. , Pan , I. J. and Wang , J. D. 2006 . Parental exposure to lead and small for gestational age births . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 49 : 417 – 422 .
  • Chen , Y. C. , Yu , M. L. , Rogan , W. J. , Gladen , B. C. and Hsu , C. C. 1994 . A 6-year follow-up of behavior and activity disorders in the Taiwan Yu-cheng children . Am. J. Public Health , 84 : 415 – 421 .
  • Chen , Y. J. and Hsu , C. C. 1994 . Effects of prenatal exposure to PCBs on the neurological function of children: a neuropsychological and neurophysiological study . Dev. Med. Child. Neurol. , 36 : 312 – 320 .
  • Chen , Z. , Robison , L. , Giller , R. , Krailo , M. , Davis , M. , Davies , S. and Shu , X. O. 2006 . Environmental exposure to residential pesticides, chemicals, dusts, fumes, and metals, and risk of childhood germ cell tumors . Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health , 209 : 31 – 40 .
  • Chen , Z. , Robison , L. , Giller , R. , Krailo , M. , Davis , M. , Gardner , K. , Davies , S. and Shu , X. O. 2005a . Risk of childhood germ cell tumors in association with parental smoking and drinking . Cancer , 103 : 1064 – 1071 .
  • Chen , Z. , Stewart , P. A. , Davies , S. , Giller , R. , Krailo , M. , Davis , M. , Robison , L. and Shu , X. O. 2005b . Parental occupational exposure to pesticides and childhood germ-cell tumors . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 162 : 858 – 867 .
  • Chia , S. E. , Lee , J. , Chia , K. S. and Chan , O. Y. 2004 . Low birth weight in relation to parental occupations—A population-based registry in Singapore (1994–1998) . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 26 : 285 – 290 .
  • Chiodo , L. M. , Jacobson , S. W. and Jacobson , J. L. 2004 . Neurodevelopmental effects of postnatal lead exposure at very low levels . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 26 : 359 – 371 .
  • Cho , S. I. , Li , Q. , Yang , J. , Chen , C. , Padungtod , C. , Ryan , L. , Christiani , D. C. and Xu , X. 1999 . Drinking water source and spontaneous abortion: A cross-sectional study in a rural Chinese population . Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health , 5 : 164 – 169 .
  • Clarkson , T. W. 2002 . The three modern faces of mercury . Environ. Health Perspect. , 110 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 11 – 23 .
  • Clavel , J. , Bellec , S. , Rebouissou , S. , Menegaux , F. , Feunteun , J. , Bonaiti-Pellie , C. , Baruchel , A. , Kebaili , K. , Lambilliotte , A. , Leverger , G. , Sommelet , D. , Lescoeur , B. , Beaune , P. , Hemon , D. and Loriot , M. A. 2005 . Childhood leukaemia, polymorphisms of metabolism enzyme genes, and interactions with maternal tobacco, coffee and alcohol consumption during pregnancy . Eur. J. Cancer Prev. , 14 : 531 – 540 .
  • Cocco , P. , Fadda , D. , Ibba , A. , Melis , M. , Tocco , M. G. , Atzeri , S. , Avataneo , G. , Meloni , M. , Monni , F. and Flore , C. 2005 . Reproductive outcomes in DDT applicators . Environ. Res. , 98 : 120 – 126 .
  • Cohn , B. A. , Cirillo , P. M. , Wolff , M. S. , Schwingl , P. J. , Cohen , R. D. , Sholtz , R. I. , Ferrara , A. , Christianson , R. E. , van den Berg , B. J. and Siiteri , P. K. 2003 . DDT and DDE exposure in mothers and time to pregnancy in daughters . Lancet , 361 : 2205 – 2206 .
  • Cohn , R. D. , Arbes , S. J. Jr , Jaramillo , R. , Reid , L. H. and Zeldin , D. C. 2006 . National prevalence and exposure risk for cockroach allergen in U.S. households . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 522 – 526 .
  • Colon , I. , Caro , D. , Bourdony , C. J. and Rosario , O. 2000 . Identification of phthalate esters in the serum of young puerto rican girls with premature breast development . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 : 895 – 900 .
  • Colt , J. S. and Blair , A. 1998 . Parental occupational exposures and risk of childhood cancer . Environ. Health Perspect. , 106 ( Suppl. 3 ) : 909 – 925 .
  • Commission for Environmental Cooperation. 2002. North American regional action plan on environmental monitoring and assessment. Located http://www.cec.org/files/PDF/POLLUTANTS/EMA-NARAP_final-e2.pdf
  • Commission for Environmental Cooperation. 2006. Children's health and the environment in North America: A first report on available indicators and measures. Located http://www.cec.org/children
  • Cook , D. G. and Strachan , D. P. 1999 . Health effects of passive smoking–10: Summary of effects of parental smoking on the respiratory health of children and implications for research . Thorax , 54 : 357 – 366 .
  • Cooney , G. H. , Bell , A. , McBride , W. and Carter , C. 1989a . Neurobehavioural consequences of prenatal low level exposures to lead . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 11 : 95 – 104 .
  • Cooney , G. H. , Bell , A. , McBride , W. and Carter , C. 1989b . Low-level exposures to lead: The Sydney lead study . Dev. Med. Child. Neurol. , 31 : 640 – 649 .
  • Cooney , M. A. , Daniels , J. L. , Ross , J. A. , Breslow , N. E. , Pollock , B. H. and Olshani , A. F. 2007 . Household pesticides and the risk of Wilms tumor . Environ. Health Perspect. , 115 : 134 – 137 .
  • Cordier , S. , Bergeret , A. , Goujard , J. , Ha , M. C. , Ayme , S. , Bianchi , F. , Calzolari , E. , De Walle , H. E. , Knill-Jones , R. , Candela , S. , Dale , I. , Dananche , B. , de Vigan , C. , Fevotte , J. , Kiel , G. and Mandereau , L. 1997 . Congenital malformation and maternal occupational exposure to glycol ethers . Epidemiology , 8 : 355 – 363 .
  • Cordier , S. , Chevrier , C. , Robert-Gnansia , E. , Lorente , C. , Brula , P. and Hours , M. 2004 . Risk of congenital anomalies in the vicinity of municipal solid waste incinerators . Occup. Environ. Med. , 61 : 8 – 15 .
  • Cordier , S. , Garel , M. , Mandereau , L. , Morcel , H. , Doineau , P. , Gosme-Seguret , S. , Josse , D. , White , R. and Amiel-Tison , C. 2002 . Neurodevelopmental investigations among methylmercury-exposed children in French Guiana . Environ. Res. , 89 : 1 – 11 .
  • Cordier , S. , Ha , M. C. , Ayme , S. and Goujard , J. 1992 . Maternal occupational exposure and congenital malformations . Scand. J. Work Environ Health , 18 : 11 – 17 .
  • Cordier , S. , Iglesias , M. J. , Le Goaster , C. , Guyot , M. M. , Mandereau , L. and Hemon , D. 1994 . Incidence and risk factors for childhood brain tumors in the Ile de France . Int. J. Cancer , 59 : 776 – 782 .
  • Cordier , S. , Lefeuvre , B. , Filippini , G. , Peris-Bonet , R. , Farinotti , M. , Lovicu , G. and Mandereau , L. 1997 . Parental occupation, occupational exposure to solvents and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and risk of childhood brain tumors (Italy, France, Spain) . Cancer Causes Control , 8 : 688 – 697 .
  • Cordier , S. , Mandereau , L. , Preston-Martin , S. , Little , J. , Lubin , F. , Mueller , B. , Holly , E. , Filippini , G. , Peris-Bonet , R. , McCredie , M. , Choi , N. W. and Arsla , A. 2001 . Parental occupations and childhood brain tumors: results of an international case-control study . Cancer Causes Control , 12 : 865 – 874 .
  • Correa , A. , Gray , R. H. , Cohen , R. , Rothman , N. , Shah , F. , Seacat , H. and Corn , M. 1996 . Ethylene glycol ethers and risks of spontaneous abortion and subfertility . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 143 : 707 – 717 .
  • Correa-Villasenor , A. , Ferencz , C. , Boughman , J. A. and Neill , C. A. 1991 . Total anomalous pulmonary venous return: familial and environmental factors. The Baltimore-Washington Infant Study Group . Teratology , 44 : 415 – 428 .
  • Correa-Villasenor , A. , Ferencz , C. , Loffredo , C. and Magee , C. 1993 . Paternal exposures and cardiovascular malformations. The Baltimore–Washington Infant Study Group . J. Expos. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. , 3 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 173 – 185 .
  • Counter , S. A. 2003 . Neurophysiological anomalies in brainstem responses of mercury-exposed children of Andean gold miners . J. Occup. Environ. Med. , 45 : 87 – 95 .
  • Counter , S. A. , Buchanan , L. H. , Laurell , G. and Ortega , F. 1998 . Blood mercury and auditory neuro-sensory responses in children and adults in the Nambija gold mining area of Ecuador . Neurotoxicology , 19 : 185 – 196 .
  • Counter , S. A. , Buchanan , L. H. , Ortega , F. and Laurell , G. 1997 . Normal auditory brainstem and cochlear function in extreme pediatric plumbism . J. Neurol. Sci. , 152 : 85 – 92 .
  • Cox , C. , Clarkson , T. W. , Marsh , D. O. , Amin-Zaki , L. , Tikriti , S. and Myers , G. G. 1989 . Dose-response analysis of infants prenatally exposed to methyl mercury: An application of a single compartment model to single-strand hair analysis . Environ. Res. , 49 : 318 – 332 .
  • Croen , L. A. , Shaw , G. M. , Sanbonmatsu , L. , Selvin , S. and Buffler , P. A. 1997 . Maternal residential proximity to hazardous waste sites and risk for selected congenital malformations . Epidemiology , 8 : 347 – 354 .
  • Croen , L. A. , Todoroff , K. and Shaw , G. M. 2001 . Maternal exposure to nitrate from drinking water and diet and risk for neural tube defects . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 153 : 325 – 331 .
  • Crosignani , P. , Tittarelli , A. , Borgini , A. , Codazzi , T. , Rovelli , A. , Porro , E. , Contiero , P. , Bianchi , N. , Tagliabue , G. , Fissi , R. , Rossitto , F. and Berrino , F. 2004 . Childhood leukemia and road traffic: A population-based case-control study . Int. J. Cancer , 108 : 596 – 599 .
  • Crump , K. S. , Kjellstrom , T. , Shipp , A. M. , Silvers , A. and Stewart , A. 1998 . Influence of prenatal mercury exposure upon scholastic and psychological test performance: Benchmark analysis of a New Zealand cohort . Risk Anal , 18 : 701 – 713 .
  • Curtis , K. M. , Savitz , D. A. and Arbuckle , T. E. 1997 . Effects of cigarette smoking, caffeine consumption, and alcohol intake on fecundability . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 146 : 32 – 41 .
  • Curtis , K. M. , Savitz , D. A. , Weinberg , C. R. and Arbuckle , T. E. 1999 . The effect of pesticide exposure on time to pregnancy . Epidemiology , 10 : 112 – 117 .
  • Dahl , R. , White , R. F. , Weihe , P. , Sorensen , N. , Letz , R. , Hudnell , H. K. , Otto , D. A. and Grandjean , P. 1996 . Feasibility and validity of three computer-assisted neurobehavioral tests in 7-year-old children . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 18 : 413 – 419 .
  • Dallaire , F. , Dewailly , E. , Muckle , G. , Vezina , C. , Jacobson , S. W. , Jacobson , J. L. and Ayotte , P. 2004 . Acute infections and environmental exposure to organochlorines in Inuit infants from Nunavik . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 1359 – 1365 .
  • Dallaire , F. , Dewailly , E. , Vezina , C. , Muckle , G. , Weber , J. P. , Bruneau , S. and Ayotte , P. 2006 . Effect of prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls on incidence of acute respiratory infections in preschool Inuit children . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 1301 – 1305 .
  • Damgaard , I. N. , Skakkebaek , N. E. , Toppari , J. , Virtanen , H. E. , Shen , H. , Schramm , K. W. , Petersen , J. H. , Jensen , T. K. and Main , K. M. 2006 . Persistent pesticides in human breast milk and cryptorchidism . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 1133 – 1138 .
  • Daniell , W. E. and Vaughan , T. L. 1988 . Paternal employment in solvent related occupations and adverse pregnancy outcomes . Br. J. Ind. Med. , 45 : 193 – 197 .
  • Daniels , J. L. , Longnecker , M. P. , Klebanoff , M. A. , Gray , K. A. , Brock , J. W. , Zhou , H. , Chen , Z. and Needham , L. L. 2003 . Prenatal exposure to low-level polychlorinated biphenyls in relation to mental and motor development at 8 months . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 157 : 485 – 492 .
  • Daniels , J. L. , Longnecker , M. P. , Rowland , A. S. and Golding , J. 2004 . Fish intake during pregnancy and early cognitive development of offspring . Epidemiology , 15 : 394 – 402 .
  • Daniels , J. L. , Olshan , A. F. , Teschke , K. , Hertz-Picciotto , I. , Savitz , D. A. , Blatt , J. , Bondy , M. L. , Neglia , J. P. , Pollock , B. H. , Cohn , S. L. , Look , A. T. , Seeger , R. C. and Castleberry , R. P. 2001 . Residential pesticide exposure and neuroblastoma . Epidemiology , 12 : 20 – 27 .
  • Darvill , T. , Lonky , E. , Reihman , J. , Stewart , P. and Pagano , J. 2000 . Prenatal exposure to PCBs and infant performance on the Fagan test of infant intelligence . Neurotoxicology , 21 : 1029 – 1038 .
  • Davidson , P. W. , Myers , G. J. , Cox , C. , Axtell , C. , Shamlaye , C. , Sloane-Reeves , J. , Cernichiari , E. , Needham , L. , Choi , A. , Wang , Y. , Berlin , M. and Clarkson , T. W. 1998 . Effects of prenatal and postnatal methylmercury exposure from fish consumption on neurodevelopment: Outcomes at 66 months of age in the Seychelles Child Development Study . J. Am. Med. Assoc. , 280 : 701 – 707 .
  • Davidson , P. W. , Myers , G. J. , Cox , C. , Shamlaye , C. F. , Marsh , D. O. , Tanner , M. A. , Berlin , M. , SloaneReeves , J. , Cernichiari , E. and Choisy , O. and others. 1995 . Longitudinal neurodevelopmental study of Seychellois children following in utero exposure to methylmercury from maternal fish ingestion: Outcomes at 19 and 29 months . Neurotoxicology , 16 : 677 – 688 .
  • Davidson , P. W. , Myers , G. J. and Weiss , B. 2004 . Mercury exposure and child development outcomes . Pediatrics , 113 : 1023 – 1029 .
  • Davidson , P. W. , Palumbo , D. , Myers , G. J. , Cox , C. , Shamlaye , C. F. , Sloane-Reeves , J. , Cernichiari , E. , Wilding , G. E. and Clarkson , T. W. 2000 . Neurodevelopmental outcomes of Seychellois children from the pilot cohort at 108 months following prenatal exposure to methylmercury from a maternal fish diet . Environ. Res. , 84 : 1 – 11 .
  • Davis , J. R. , Brownson , R. C. , Garcia , R. , Bentz , B. J. and Turner , A. 1993 . Family pesticide use and childhood brain cancer . Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 24 : 87 – 92 .
  • Dawson , E. B. , Evans , D. R. , Harris , W. A. and Van Hook , J. W. 1999 . Amniotic fluid B12, calcium, and lead levels associated with neural tube defects . Am. J. Perinatol. , 16 : 373 – 378 .
  • de Burbure , C. , Buchet , J. P. , Bernard , A. , Leroyer , A. , Nisse , C. , Haguenoer , J. M. , Bergamaschi , E. and Mutti , A. 2003 . Biomarkers of renal effects in children and adults with low environmental exposure to heavy metals . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 66 : 783 – 798 .
  • de Burbure , C. , Buchet , J. P. , Leroyer , A. , Nisse , C. , Haguenoer , J. M. , Mutti , A. , Smerhovsky , Z. , Cikrt , M. , Trzcinka-Ochocka , M. , Razniewska , G. , Jakubowski , M. and Bernard , A. 2006 . Renal and neurologic effects of cadmium, lead, mercury, and arsenic in children: Evidence of early effects and multiple interactions at environmental exposure levels . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 584 – 590 .
  • de Cock , J. , Westveer , K. , Heederik , D. , te Velde , E. and van Kooij , R. 1994 . Time to pregnancy and occupational exposure to pesticides in fruit growers in The Netherlands . Occup. Environ. Med. , 51 : 693 – 699 .
  • De Roos , A. J. , Olshan , A. F. , Teschke , K. , Poole , C. , Savitz , D. A. , Blatt , J. , Bondy , M. L. and Pollock , B. H. 2001 . Parental occupational exposures to chemicals and incidence of neuroblastoma in offspring . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 154 : 106 – 114 .
  • Debes , F. , Budtz-Jorgensen , E. , Weihe , P. , White , R. F. and Grandjean , P. 2006 . Impact of prenatal methylmercury exposure on neurobehavioral function at age 14 years . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 28 : 363 – 375 .
  • Dejin-Karlsson , E. and Ostergren , P. O. 2003 . Psychosocial factors, lifestyle, and fetal growth: The added value of both pre- and post-natal assessments . Eur. J. Public Health , 13 : 210 – 217 .
  • Dejmek , J. , Jelinek , R. , Solansky’ , I. , Benes , I. and Sram , R. J. 2000 . Fecundability and parental exposure to ambient sulfur dioxide . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 : 647 – 654 .
  • Dejmek , J. , Solansk , y. I , Podrazilova , K. and Sram , R. J. 2002 . The exposure of nonsmoking and smoking mothers to environmental tobacco smoke during different gestational phases and fetal growth . Environ. Health Perspect. , 110 : 601 – 606 .
  • Del Corno , G. , Montesarchio , E. and Fara , G. M. 1985 . Problems in the assessment of human exposure to tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD): The marker chloracne . Eur. J. Epidemiol. , 1 : 139 – 144 .
  • Den Hond , E. , Roels , H. A. , Hoppenbrouwers , K. , Nawrot , T. , Thijs , L. , Vandermeulen , C. , Winneke , G. , Vanderschueren , D. and Staessen , J. A. 2002 . Sexual maturation in relation to polychlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons: Sharpe and Skakkebaek's hypothesis revisited . Environ. Health Perspect. , 110 : 771 – 776 .
  • DeSesso , J. M. , Jacobson , C. F. , Scialli , A. R. , Farr , C. H. and Holson , J. F. 1998 . An assessment of the developmental toxicity of inorganic arsenic . Reprod. Toxicol. , 12 : 385 – 433 .
  • Dewailly , E. , Ayotte , P. , Bruneau , S. , Gingras , S. , Belles-Isles , M. and Roy , R. 2000 . Susceptibility to infections and immune status in Inuit infants exposed to organochlorines . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 : 205 – 211 .
  • Dietert , R. R. , Etzel , R. A. , Chen , D. , Halonen , M. , Holladay , S. D. , Jarabek , A. M. , Landreth , K. , Peden , D. B. , Pinkerton , K. , Smialowicz , R. J. and Zoetis , T. 2000 . Workshop to identify critical windows of exposure for children's health: Immune and respiratory systems work group summary . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 ( Suppl. 3 ) : 483 – 490 .
  • Dietrich , K. N. , Ris , M. D. , Succop , P. A. , Berger , O. G. and Bornschein , R. L. 2001 . Early exposure to lead and juvenile delinquency . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 23 : 511 – 518 .
  • Dietrich , K. N. , Succop , P. A. , Berger , O. G. and Keith , R. W. 1992 . Lead exposure and the central auditory processing abilities and cognitive development of urban children: The Cincinnati Lead Study Cohort at age 5 years . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 14 : 51 – 56 .
  • Dietrich , K. N. , Succop , P. A. , Bornschein , R. L. , Krafft , K. M. , Berger , O. , Hammond , P. B. and Buncher , C. R. 1990 . Lead exposure and neurobehavioral development in later infancy . Environ. Health Perspect. , 89 : 13 – 19 .
  • DiFranza , J. R. , Aligne , C. A. and Weitzman , M. 2004 . Prenatal and postnatal environmental tobacco smoke exposure and children's health . Pediatrics , 113 : 1007 – 1015 .
  • Dimich-Ward , H. , Hertzman , C. , Teschke , K. , Hershler , R. , Marion , S. A. , Ostry , A. and Kelly , S. 1996 . Reproductive effects of paternal exposure to chlorophenate wood preservatives in the sawmill industry . Scand. J. Work Environ Health , 22 : 267 – 273 .
  • Dodds , L. , King , W. , Allen , A. C. , Armson , B. A. , Fell , D. B. and Nimrod , C. 2004 . Trihalomethanes in public water supplies and risk of stillbirth . Epidemiology , 15 : 179 – 186 .
  • Dodds , L. , King , W. , Woolcott , C. and Pole , J. 1999 . Trihalomethanes in public water supplies and adverse birth outcomes . Epidemiology , 10 : 233 – 237 .
  • Dodds , L. and King , W. D. 2001 . Relation between trihalomethane compounds and birth defects . Occup. Environ. Med. , 58 : 443 – 446 .
  • Dodds , L. and Seviour , R. 2001 . Congenital anomalies and other birth outcomes among infants born to women living near a hazardous waste site in Sydney, Nova Scotia . Can. J. Public Health , 92 : 331 – 334 .
  • Dolk , H. , Pattenden , S. , Vrijheid , M. , Thakrar , B. and Armstrong , B. 2000 . Perinatal and infant mortality and low birth weight among residents near cokeworks in Great Britain . Arch. Environ. Health , 55 : 26 – 30 .
  • Dolk , H. and Vrijheid , M. 2003 . The impact of environmental pollution on congenital anomalies . Br. Med. Bull. , 68 : 25 – 45 .
  • Dolk , H. , Vrijheid , M. , Armstrong , B. , Abramsky , L. , Bianchi , F. , Garne , E. , Nelen , V. , Robert , E. , Scott , J. E. , Stone , D. and Tenconi , R. 1998 . Risk of congenital anomalies near hazardous-waste landfill sites in Europe: the EUROHAZCON study . Lancet , 352 : 423 – 427 .
  • Dorsch , M. M. , Scragg , R. K. , McMichael , A. J. , Baghurst , P. A. and Dyer , K. F. 1984 . Congenital malformations and maternal drinking water supply in rural South Australia: A case-control study . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 119 : 473 – 486 .
  • Doyle , P. , Roman , E. , Beral , V. and Brookes , M. 1997 . Spontaneous abortion in dry cleaning workers potentially exposed to perchloroethylene . Occup. Environ. Med. , 54 : 848 – 853 .
  • Dugandzic , R. , Dodds , L. , Stieb , D. and Smith-Doiron , M. 2006 . The association between low level exposures to ambient air pollution and term low birth weight: A retrospective cohort study . Environ. Health , 5 : 1 – 8 .
  • Dulout , F. N. , Grillo , C. A. , Seoane , A. I. , Maderna , C. R. , Nilsson , R. , Vahter , M. , Darroudi , F. and Natarajan , A. T. 1996 . Chromosomal aberrations in peripheral blood lymphocytes from native Andean women and children from northwestern Argentina exposed to arsenic in drinking water . Mutat. Res. , 370 : 151 – 158 .
  • Dummer , T. J. , Dickinson , H. O. and Parker , L. 2003a . Adverse pregnancy outcomes around incinerators and crematoriums in Cumbria, north west England, 1956–93 . J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health , 57 : 456 – 461 .
  • Dummer , T. J. , Dickinson , H. O. and Parker , L. 2003b . Prevalence of adverse pregnancy outcomes around hazardous industrial sites in Cumbria, north-west England, 1950–93 . Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. , 17 : 250 – 255 .
  • Efird , J. T. , Holly , E. A. , Preston-Martin , S. , Mueller , B. A. , Lubin , F. , Filippini , G. , Peris-Bonet , R. , McCredie , M. , Cordier , S. , Arslan , A. and Bracci , P. M. 2003 . Farm-related exposures and childhood brain tumours in seven countries: Results from the SEARCH International Brain Tumour Study . Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. , 17 : 201 – 211 .
  • Eiben , B. , Bartels , I. , Bahr-Porsch , S. , Borgmann , S. , Gatz , G. , Gellert , G. , Goebel , R. , Hammans , W. , Hentemann , M. Osmers , R. 1990 . Cytogenetic analysis of 750 spontaneous abortions with the direct-preparation method of chorionic villi and its implications for studying genetic causes of pregnancy wastage . Am. J. Hum. Genet. , 47 : 656 – 663 .
  • Elghany , N. A. , Stopford , W. , Bunn , W. B. and Fleming , L. E. 1997 . Occupational exposure to inorganic mercury vapour and reproductive outcomes . Occup. Med. , 47 : 333 – 336 .
  • Elliott , P. , Briggs , D. , Morris , S. , de Hoogh , C. , Hurt , C. , Jensen , T. K. , Maitland , I. , Richardson , S. , Wakefield , J. and Jarup , L. 2001 . Risk of adverse birth outcomes in populations living near landfill sites . Br. Med. J. , 323 : 363 – 368 .
  • Elliott , R. C. , Jones , J. R. , McElvenny , D. M. , Pennington , M. J. , Northage , C. , Clegg , T. A. , Clarke , S. D. , Hodgson , J. T. and Osman , J. 1999 . Spontaneous abortion in the British semiconductor industry . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 36 : 557 – 572 .
  • Ellish , N. J. , Saboda , K. , O'Connor , J. , Nasca , P. C. , Stanek , E. J. and Boyle , C. 1996 . A prospective study of early pregnancy loss . Hum. Reprod. , 11 : 406 – 412 .
  • Elwood , J. M. and Coldman , A. J. 1981 . Water composition in the etiology of anencephalus . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 113 : 681 – 690 .
  • Emory , E. , Ansari , Z. , Pattillo , R. , Archibold , E. and Chevalier , J. 2003 . Maternal blood lead effects on infant intelligence at age 7 months . Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. , 188 : S26 – S32 .
  • Engel , L. S. , O'Meara , E. S. and Schwartz , S. M. 2000 . Maternal occupation in agriculture and risk of limb defects in Washington State, 1980–1993 . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 26 : 193 – 198 .
  • Erickson , J. D. , Mulinare , J. , McClain , P. W. , Fitch , T. G. , James , L. M. , McClearn , A. B. and Adams , M. J. Jr . 1984 . Vietnam veterans’ risks for fathering babies with birth defects . J. Am. Med. Assoc. , 252 : 903 – 912 .
  • Ernhart , C. B. , Morrow-Tlucak , M. and Wolf , A. W. 1988 . Low level lead exposure and intelligence in the preschool years . Sci. Total Environ. , 71 : 453 – 459 .
  • Ernhart , C. B. , Morrow-Tlucak , M. , Wolf , A. W. , Super , D. and Drotar , D. 1989 . Low level lead exposure in the prenatal and early preschool periods: Intelligence prior to school entry . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 11 : 161 – 170 .
  • Eskenazi , B. and Bergmann , J. J. 1995 . Passive and active maternal smoking during pregnancy, as measured by serum cotinine, and post-natal smoke exposure. I. Effects on physical growth at age 5 years . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 142 : S10 – S18 .
  • Eskenazi , B. , Marks , A. R. , Bradman , A. , Fenster , L. , Johnson , C. , Barr , D. B. and Jewell , N. P. 2006 . In utero exposure to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and neurodevelopment among young Mexican American children . Pediatrics , 118 : 233 – 241 .
  • Eskenazi , B. , Mocarelli , P. , Warner , M. , Chee , W. Y. , Gerthoux , P. M. , Samuels , S. , Needham , L. L. and Patterson , D. G. Jr . 2003 . Maternal serum dioxin levels and birth outcomes in women of Seveso, Italy . Environ. Health Perspect. , 111 : 947 – 953 .
  • European Environment Agency and the WHO Regional Office for Europe (Copenhagen). 2002. Children's health and environment: A review of evidence (Environmental Issue Report No 29). Located http://reports.eea.eu.int/environmental_issue_report_2002_29/en
  • Fabia , J. and Thuy , T. D. 1974 . Occupation of father at time of birth of children dying of malignant diseases . Br. J. Prev. Soc. Med. , 28 : 98 – 100 .
  • Factor-Litvak , P. , Graziano , J. H. , Kline , J. K. , Popovac , D. , Mehmeti , A. , Ahmedi , G. , Shrout , P. , Murphy , M. J. , Gashi , E. and Haxhiu , R. and others. 1991 . A prospective study of birthweight and length of gestation in a population surrounding a lead smelter in Kosovo, Yugoslavia . Int. J. Epidemiol. , 20 : 722 – 728 .
  • Factor-Litvak , P. , Wasserman , G. , Kline , J. K. and Graziano , J. 1999 . The Yugoslavia Prospective Study of environmental lead exposure . Environ. Health Perspect. , 107 : 9 – 15 .
  • Falcon , M. , Vinas , P. and Luna , A. 2003 . Placental lead and outcome of pregnancy . Toxicology , 185 : 59 – 66 .
  • Fan , A. M. and Steinberg , V. E. 1996 . Health implications of nitrate and nitrite in drinking water: An update on methemoglobinemia occurrence and reproductive and developmental toxicity . Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. , 23 : 35 – 43 .
  • Faustman , E. M. , Silbernagel , S. M. , Fenske , R. A. , Burbacher , T. M. and Ponce , R. A. 2000 . Mechanisms underlying children's susceptibility to environmental toxicants . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 13 – 21 .
  • Feingold , L. , Savitz , D. A. and John , E. M. 1992 . Use of a job-exposure matrix to evaluate parental occupation and childhood cancer . Cancer Causes Control , 3 : 161 – 169 .
  • Fell , J. M. , Reynolds , A. P. , Meadows , N. , Khan , K. , Long , S. G. , Quaghebeur , G. , Taylor , W. J. and Milla , P. J. 1996 . Manganese toxicity in children receiving long-term parenteral nutrition . Lancet , 347 : 1218 – 1221 .
  • Fels , L. M. , Wunsch , M. , Baranowski , J. , Norska-Borowka , I. , Price , R. G. , Taylor , S. A. , Patel , S. , De Broe , M. , Elsevier , M. M. , Lauwerys , R. , Roels , H. , Bernard , A. , Mutti , A. , Gelpi , E. , Rosello , J. and Stolte , H. 1998 . Adverse effects of chronic low level lead exposure on kidney function—A risk group study in children . Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. , 13 : 2248 – 2256 .
  • Fenske , R. A. , Lu , C. , Curl , C. L. , Shirai , J. H. and Kissel , J. C. 2005 . Biologic monitoring to characterize organophosphorus pesticide exposure among children and workers: An analysis of recent studies in Washington State . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 1651 – 1657 .
  • Fenster , L. , Eskenazi , B. , Anderson , M. , Bradman , A. , Harley , K. , Hernandez , H. , Hubbard , A. and Barr , D. B. 2006 . Association of in utero organochlorine pesticide exposure and fetal growth and length of gestation in an agricultural population . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 597 – 602 .
  • Feychting , M. , Plato , N. , Nise , G. and Ahlbom , A. 2001 . Paternal occupational exposures and childhood cancer . Environ. Health Perspect. , 109 : 193 – 196 .
  • Feychting , M. , Svensson , D. and Ahlbom , A. 1998 . Exposure to motor vehicle exhaust and childhood cancer . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 24 : 8 – 11 .
  • Figa-Talamanca , I. , Petrelli , G. , Tropeano , R. , Papa , G. and Boccia , G. 2000 . Fertility of male workers of the Italian mint . Reprod. Toxicol. , 14 : 325 – 330 .
  • Filippini , G. , Maisonneuve , P. , McCredie , M. , Peris-Bonet , R. , Modan , B. , Preston-Martin , S. , Mueller , B. A. , Holly , E. A. , Cordier , S. , Choi , N. W. , Little , J. , Arslan , A. and Boyle , P. 2002 . Relation of childhood brain tumors to exposure of parents and children to tobacco smoke: The SEARCH international case-control study. Surveillance of Environmental Aspects Related to Cancer in Humans . Int. J. Cancer , 100 : 206 – 213 .
  • Fleming , L. E. , Bean , J. A. , Rudolph , M. and Hamilton , K. 1999 . Cancer incidence in a cohort of licensed pesticide applicators in Florida . J. Occup. Environ. Med. , 41 : 279 – 88 .
  • Flores-Luevano , S. , Farias , P. , Hernandez , M. , Romano-Riquer , P. , Weber , J. P. , Dewailly , E. , Cuevas-Alpuche , J. and Romieu , I. 2003 . DDT/DDE concentrations and risk of hypospadias. Pilot case-control study . Salud Publica Mex. , 45 : 431 – 438 .
  • Flower , K. B. , Hoppin , J. A. , Lynch , C. F. , Blair , A. , Knott , C. , Shore , D. L. and Sandler , D. P. 2004 . Cancer risk and parental pesticide application in children of agricultural health study participants . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 631 – 635 .
  • Ford , A. M. , Bennett , C. A. , Price , C. M. , Bruin , M. C. , Van Wering , E. R. and Greaves , M. 1998 . Fetal origins of the TEL-AML1 fusion gene in identical twins with leukemia . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA , 95 : 4584 – 4588 .
  • Foster , P. M. 2006 . Disruption of reproductive development in male rat offspring following in utero exposure to phthalate esters . Int. J. Androl. , 29 : 140 – 147 . 181 – 185 . discussion
  • Foster , W. , Chan , S. , Platt , L. and Hughes , C. 2000 . Detection of endocrine disrupting chemicals in samples of second trimester human amniotic fluid . J Clin Endocrinol Metab , 85 : 2954 – 2957 .
  • Freedman , D. M. , Stewart , P. , Kleinerman , R. A. , Wacholder , S. , Hatch , E. E. , Tarone , R. E. , Robison , L. L. and Linet , M. S. 2001 . Household solvent exposures and childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia . Am. J. Public Health , 91 : 564 – 567 .
  • Gale , K. B. , Ford , A. M. , Repp , R. , Borkhardt , A. , Keller , C. , Eden , O. B. and Greaves , M. F. 1997 . Backtracking leukemia to birth: Identification of clonotypic gene fusion sequences in neonatal blood spots . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA , 94 : 13950 – 13954 .
  • Gallagher , M. D. , Nuckols , J. R. , Stallones , L. and Savitz , D. A. 1998 . Exposure to trihalomethanes and adverse pregnancy outcomes . Epidemiology , 9 : 484 – 489 .
  • Garcia-Rodriguez , J. , Garcia-Martin , M. , Nogueras-Ocana , M. , de Dios Luna-del-Castillo , J. , Espigares Garcia , M. , Olea , N. and Lardelli-Claret , P. 1996 . Exposure to pesticides and cryptorchidism: Geographical evidence of a possible association . Environ. Health Perspect. , 104 : 1090 – 1095 .
  • Gardner , M. J. , Snee , M. P. , Hall , A. J. , Powell , C. A. , Downes , S. and Terrell , J. D. 1990 . Results of case-control study of leukaemia and lymphoma among young people near Sellafield nuclear plant in West Cumbria . Br. Med. J. , 300 : 423 – 429 .
  • Garry , V. F. 2002 . Birth defects, season of conception, and sex of children born to pesticide applicators living in the red river valley of Minnesota, USA . Environ. Health Perspect. , 110 ( Suppl 3 ) : 441 – 449 .
  • Garry , V. F. , Harkins , M. , Lyubimov , A. , Erickson , L. and Long , L. 2002 . Reproductive outcomes in the women of the Red River Valley of the north. I. The spouses of pesticide applicators: Pregnancy loss, age at menarche, and exposures to pesticides . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 65 : 769 – 786 .
  • Garry , V. F. , Schreinemachers , D. , Harkins , M. E. and Griffith , J. 1996 . Pesticide appliers, biocides, and birth defects in rural Minnesota . Environ. Health Perspect. , 104 : 394 – 399 .
  • Gehring , U. , Cyrys , J. , Sedlmeir , G. , Brunekreef , B. , Bellander , T. , Fischer , P. , Bauer , C. P. , Reinhardt , D. , Wichmann , H. E. and Heinrich , J. 2002 . Traffic-related air pollution and respiratory health during the first 2 yrs of life . Eur. Respir. J. , 19 : 690 – 698 .
  • Gemmel , A. , Tavares , M. , Alperin , S. , Soncini , J. , Daniel , D. , Dunn , J. , Crawford , S. , Braveman , N. , Clarkson , T. W. , McKinlay , S. and Bellinger , D. C. 2002 . Blood lead level and dental caries in school-age children . Environ. Health Perspect. , 110 : A625 – A630 .
  • George , L. , Granath , F. , Johansson , A. L. , Anneren , G. and Cnattingius , S. 2006 . Environmental tobacco smoke and risk of spontaneous abortion . Epidemiology , 17 : 500 – 505 .
  • Geschwind , S. A. , Stolwijk , J. A. , Bracken , M. , Fitzgerald , E. , Stark , A. , Olsen , C. and Melius , J. 1992 . Risk of congenital malformations associated with proximity to hazardous waste sites . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 135 : 1197 – 1207 .
  • Gilboa , S. M. , Mendola , P. , Olshan , A. F. , Langlois , P. H. , Savitz , D. A. , Loomis , D. , Herring , A. H. and Fixler , D. E. 2005 . Relation between ambient air quality and selected birth defects, seven county study, Texas, 1997–2000 . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 162 : 238 – 252 .
  • Gilbreath , S. and Kass , P. H. 2006a . Fetal and neonatal deaths and congenital anomalies associated with open dumpsites in Alaska Native villages . Int. J. Circumpolar Health , 65 : 133 – 147 .
  • Gilbreath , S. and Kass , P. H. 2006b . Adverse birth outcomes associated with open dumpsites in Alaska Native Villages . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 164 : 518 – 528 .
  • Gladen , B. C. , Klebanoff , M. A. , Hediger , M. L. , Katz , S. H. , Barr , D. B. , Davis , M. D. and Longnecker , M. P. 2004 . Prenatal DDT exposure in relation to anthropometric and pubertal measures in adolescent males . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 1761 – 1767 .
  • Gladen , B. C. , Ragan , N. B. and Rogan , W. J. 2000 . Pubertal growth and development and prenatal and lactational exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethene . J. Pediatr. , 136 : 490 – 496 .
  • Gladen , B. C. and Rogan , W. J. 1991 . Effects of perinatal polychlorinated biphenyls and dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethene on later development . J. Pediatr. , 119 : 58 – 63 .
  • Gladen , B. C. , Rogan , W. J. , Hardy , P. , Thullen , J. , Tingelstad , J. and Tully , M. 1988 . Development after exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethene transplacentally and through human milk . J. Pediatr. , 113 : 991 – 995 .
  • Gladen , B. C. , Shkiryak-Nyzhnyk , Z. A. , Chyslovska , N. , Zadorozhnaja , T. D. and Little , R. E. 2003 . Persistent organochlorine compounds and birth weight . Ann. Epidemiol. , 13 : 151 – 157 .
  • Glinianaia , S. V. , Rankin , J. , Bell , R. , Pless-Mulloli , T. and Howel , D. 2004a . Particulate air pollution and fetal health: A systematic review of the epidemiologic evidence . Epidemiology , 15 : 36 – 45 .
  • Glinianaia , S. V. , Rankin , J. , Bell , R. , Pless-Mulloli , T. and Howel , D. 2004b . Does particulate air pollution contribute to infant death? A systematic review . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 1365 – 1371 .
  • Gocmen , A. , Peters , H. A. , Cripps , D. J. , Bryan , G. T. and Morris , C. R. 1989 . Hexachlorobenzene episode in Turkey . Biomed. Environ. Sci. , 2 : 36 – 43 .
  • Goel , P. , Radotra , A. , Singh , I. , Aggarwal , A. and Dua , D. 2004 . Effects of passive smoking on outcome in pregnancy . J. Postgrad. Med. , 50 : 12 – 16 .
  • Gold , E. , Gordis , L. , Tonascia , J. and Szklo , M. 1979 . Risk factors for brain tumors in children . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 109 : 309 – 319 .
  • Goldberg , M. S. , Goulet , L. , Riberdy , H. and Bonvalot , Y. 1995 . Low birth weight and preterm births among infants born to women living near a municipal solid waste landfill site in Montreal, Quebec . Environ. Res. , 69 : 37 – 50 .
  • Golding , J. , Pembrey , M. and Jones , R. 2001 . ALSPAC—The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. I. Study methodology . Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. , 15 : 74 – 87 .
  • Golub , M. S. , Macintosh , M. S. and Baumrind , N. 1998 . Developmental and reproductive toxicity of inorganic arsenic: Animal studies and human concerns . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B , 1 : 199 – 241 .
  • Gomaa , A. , Hu , H. , Bellinger , D. , Schwartz , J. , Tsaih , S. W. , Gonzalez-Cossio , T. , Schnaas , L. , Peterson , K. , Aro , A. and Hernandez-Avila , M. 2002 . Maternal bone lead as an independent risk factor for fetal neurotoxicity: A prospective study . Pediatrics , 110 : 110 – 118 .
  • Gonzalez-Cossio , T. , Peterson , K. E. , Sanin , L. H. , Fishbein , E. , Palazuelos , E. , Aro , A. , Hernandez-Avila , M. and Hu , H. 1997 . Decrease in birth weight in relation to maternal bone lead burden . Pediatrics , 100 : 856 – 862 .
  • Gotelli , C. A. , Astolfi , E. , Cox , C. , Cernichiari , E. and Clarkson , T. W. 1985 . Early biochemical effects of an organic mercury fungicide on infants: "Dose makes the poison." . Science , 227 : 638 – 640 .
  • Gouveia , N. , Bremner , S. A. and Novaes , H. M. 2004 . Association between ambient air pollution and birth weight in Sao Paulo, Brazil . J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health , 58 : 11 – 17 .
  • Goyer , R. A. 1990 . Lead toxicity: From overt to subclinical to subtle health effects . Environ. Health Perspect. , 86 : 177 – 181 .
  • Grandjean , P. , Bjerve , K. S. , Weihe , P. and Steuerwald , U. 2001 . Birthweight in a fishing community: significance of essential fatty acids and marine food contaminants . Int. J. Epidemiol. , 30 : 1272 – 1278 .
  • Grandjean , P. , Budtz-Jorgensen , E. , Steuerwald , U. , Heinzow , B. , Needham , L. L. , Jorgensen , P. J. and Weihe , P. 2003 . Attenuated growth of breast-fed children exposed to increased concentrations of methylmercury and polychlorinated biphenyls . FASEB J. , 17 : 699 – 701 .
  • Grandjean , P. , Budtz-Jorgensen , E. , White , R. F. , Jorgensen , P. J. , Weihe , P. , Debes , F. and Keiding , N. 1999 . Methylmercury exposure biomarkers as indicators of neurotoxicity in children aged 7 years . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 150 : 301 – 305 .
  • Grandjean , P. , Weihe , P. , Burse , V. W. , Needham , L. L. , Storr-Hansen , E. , Heinzow , B. , Debes , F. , Murata , K. , Simonsen , H. , Ellefsen , P. , Budtz-Jorgensen , E. , Keiding , N. and White , R. F. 2001 . Neurobehavioral deficits associated with PCB in 7-year-old children prenatally exposed to seafood neurotoxicants . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 23 : 305 – 317 .
  • Grandjean , P. , Weihe , P. and White , R. F. 1995 . Milestone development in infants exposed to methylmercury from human milk . Neurotoxicology , 16 : 27 – 33 .
  • Grandjean , P. , Weihe , P. , White , R. F. , Debes , F. , Araki , S. , Yokoyama , K. , Murata , K. , Sorensen , N. , Dahl , R. and Jorgensen , P. J. 1997 . Cognitive deficit in 7-year-old children with prenatal exposure to methylmercury . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 19 : 417 – 428 .
  • Grandjean , P. , White , R. F. , Nielsen , A. , Cleary , D. and de Oliveira Santos , E. C. 1999 . Methylmercury neurotoxicity in Amazonian children downstream from gold mining . Environ. Health Perspect. , 107 : 587 – 591 .
  • Grandjean , P. , White , R. F. , Sullivan , K. , Debes , F. , Murata , K. , Otto , D. A. and Weihe , P. 2001 . Impact of contrast sensitivity performance on visually presented neurobehavioral tests in mercury-exposed children . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 23 : 141 – 146 .
  • Grandjean , P. , White , R. F. , Weihe , P. and Jorgensen , P. J. 2003 . Neurotoxic risk caused by stable and variable exposure to methylmercury from seafood . Ambul. Pediatr. , 3 : 18 – 23 .
  • Graves , C. G. , Matanoski , G. M. and Tardiff , R. G. 2001 . Weight of evidence for an association between adverse reproductive and developmental effects and exposure to disinfection by-products: A critical review . Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. , 34 : 103 – 124 .
  • Gray , K. A. , Klebanoff , M. A. , Brock , J. W. , Zhou , H. , Darden , R. , Needham , L. and Longnecker , M. P. 2005 . In utero exposure to background levels of polychlorinated biphenyls and cognitive functioning among school-age children . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 162 : 17 – 26 .
  • Gray , L. E. , Ostby , J. , Furr , J. , Wolf , C. J. , Lambright , C. , Parks , L. , Veeramachaneni , D. N. , Wilson , V. , Price , M. , Hotchkiss , A. , Orlando , E. and Guillette , L. 2001 . Effects of environmental antiandrogens on reproductive development in experimental animals . Hum. Reprod. Update , 7 : 248 – 264 .
  • Greene , T. and Ernhart , C. B. 1991 . Prenatal and preschool age lead exposure: Relationship with size . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 13 : 417 – 427 .
  • Gresie-Brusin , D. F. , Kielkowski , D. , Baker , A. , Channa , K. and Rees , D. 2006 . Occupational exposure to ethylene oxide during pregnancy and association with adverse reproductive outcomes . Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health [Epub Ahead of Print] ,
  • Guo , Y. L. , Chen , Y. C. , Yu , M. L. and Hsu , C. C. 1994 . Early development of Yu-Cheng children born seven to twelve years after the Taiwan PCB outbreak . Chemosphere , 29 : 2395 – 404 .
  • Guo , Y. L. , Yu , M. L. , Hsu , C. C. and Rogan , W. J. 1999 . Chlorance, goiter, arthritis, and anemia after pslychlorinated biphenyl poisoning: 14-year follow-up of the Taiwan Yucheng cohort . Environ. Health Perspect. , 107 : 715 – 719 .
  • Guo , Y. L. , Lambert , G. H. and Hsu , C. C. 1995 . Growth abnormalities in the population exposed in utero and early postnatally to polychlorinated biphenyls and dibenzofurans . Environ. Health Perspect. , 103 ( Suppl. 6 ) : 117 – 122 .
  • Guo , Y. L. , Lambert , G. H. , Hsu , C. C. and Hsu , M. M. 2004 . Yucheng: Health effects of prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dibenzofurans . Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health , 77 : 153 – 158 .
  • Guo , Y. L. , Lin , C. J. , Yao , W. J. , Ryan , J. J. and Hsu , C. C. 1994 . Musculoskeletal changes in children prenatally exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls and related compounds (Yu-Cheng children) . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 41 : 83 – 93 .
  • Ha , E. , Cho , S. I. , Chen , D. , Chen , C. , Ryan , L. , Smith , T. J. , Xu , X. and Christiani , D. C. 2002 . Parental exposure to organic solvents and reduced birth weight . Arch. Environ. Health , 57 : 207 – 214 .
  • Halfon , N. and Newacheck , P. W. 1999 . Prevalence and impact of parent-reported disabling mental health conditions among U.S. children . J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry , 38 : 600 – 609 .
  • Hamajima , N. , Hirose , K. , Tajima , K. , Rohan , T. , Calle , E. E. , Heath , C. W. Jr , Coates , R. J. , Liff , J. M. , Talamini , R. , Chantarakul , N. , Koetsawang , S. , Rachawat , D. , Morabia , A. , Schuman , L. , Stewart , W. , Szklo , M. , Bain , C. , Schofield , F. , Siskind , V. , Band , P. , Coldman , A. J. , Gallagher , R. P. , Hislop , T. G. , Yang , P. , Kolonel , L. M. , Nomura , A. M. , Hu , J. , Johnson , K. C. , Mao , Y. , De Sanjose , S. , Lee , N. , Marchbanks , P. , Ory , H. W. , Peterson , H. B. , Wilson , H. G. , Wingo , P. A. , Ebeling , K. , Kunde , D. , Nishan , P. , Hopper , J. L. , Colditz , G. , Gajalanski , V. , Martin , N. , Pardthaisong , T. , Silpisornkosol , S. , Theetranont , C. , Boosiri , B. , Chutivongse , S. , Jimakorn , P. , Virutamasen , P. , Wongsrichanalai , C. , Ewertz , M. , Adami , H. O. , Bergkvist , L. , Magnusson , C. , Persson , I. , Chang-Claude , J. , Paul , C. , Skegg , D. C. , Spears , G. F. , Boyle , P. , Evstifeeva , T. , Daling , J. R. , Hutchinson , W. B. , Malone , K. , Noonan , E. A. , Stanford , J. L. , Thomas , D. B. , Weiss , N. S. , White , E. , Andrieu , N. , Bremond , A. , Clavel , F. , Gairard , B. , Lansac , J. , Piana , L. , Renaud , R. , Izquierdo , A. , Viladiu , P. , Cuevas , H. R. , Ontiveros , P. , Palet , A. , Salazar , S. B. , Aristizabel , N. , Cuadros , A. , Tryggvadottir , L. , Tulinius , H. , Bachelot , A. , Le , M. G. , Peto , J. , Franceschi , S. , Lubin , F. , Modan , B. , Ron , E. , Wax , Y. , Friedman , G. D. , Hiatt , R. A. , Levi , F. , Bishop , T. , Kosmelj , K. , Primic-Zakelj , M. , Ravnihar , B. , Stare , J. , Beeson , W. L. , Fraser , G. , Bullbrook , R. D. , Cuzick , J. , Duffy , S. W. , Fentiman , I. S. , Hayward , J. L. , Wang , D. Y. , McMichael , A. J. , McPherson , K. , Hanson , R. L. , Leske , M. C. , Mahoney , M. C. , Nasca , P. C. , Varma , A. O. , Weinstein , A. L. , Moller , T. R. , Olsson , H. , Ranstam , J. , Goldbohm , R. A. , van den Brandt , P. A. , Apelo , R. A. , Baens , J. , de la Cruz , J. R. , Javier , B. , Lacaya , L. B. , Ngelangel , C. A. , La Vecchia , C. , Negri , E. , Marubini , E. , Ferraroni , M. , Gerber , M. , Richardson , S. , Segala , C. , Gatei , D. , Kenya , P. , Kungu , A. , Mati , J. G. , Brinton , L. A. , Hoover , R. , Schairer , C. , Spirtas , R. , Lee , H. P. , Rookus , M. A. , van Leeuwen , F. E. , Schoenberg , J. A. , McCredie , M. , Gammon , M. D. , Clarke , E. A. , Jones , L. , Neil , A. , Vessey , M. , Yeates , D. , Appleby , P. , Banks , E. , Beral , V. , Bull , D. , Crossley , B. , Goodill , A. , Green , J. , Hermon , C. , Key , T. , Langston , N. , Lewis , C. , Reeves , G. , Collins , R. , Doll , R. , Peto , R. , Mabuchi , K. , Preston , D. , Hannaford , P. , Kay , C. , Rosero-Bixby , L. , Gao , Y. T. , Jin , F. , Yuan , J. M. , Wei , H. Y. , Yun , T. , Zhiheng , C. , Berry , G. , Cooper Booth , J. , Jelihovsky , T. , MacLennan , R. , Shearman , R. , Wang , Q. S. , Baines , C. J. , Miller , A. B. , Wall , C. , Lund , E. , Stalsberg , H. , Shu , X. O. , Zheng , W. , Katsouyanni , K. , Trichopoulou , A. , Trichopoulos , D. , Dabancens , A. , Martinez , L. , Molina , R. , Salas , O. , Alexander , F. E. , Anderson , K. , Folsom , A. R. , Hulka , B. S. , Bernstein , L. , Enger , S. , Haile , R. W. , Paganini-Hill , A. , Pike , M. C. , Ross , R. K. , Ursin , G. , Yu , M. C. , Longnecker , M. P. , Newcomb , P. , Bergkvist , L. , Kalache , A. , Farley , T. M. , Holck , S. and Meirik , O. 2002 . Alcohol, tobacco and breast cancer—Collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 53 epidemiological studies, including 58,515 women with breast cancer and 95,067 women without the disease . Br. J. Cancer , 87 : 1234 – 45 .
  • Hanke , W. , Sobala , W. and Kalinka , J. 2004 . Environmental tobacco smoke exposure among pregnant women: Impact on fetal biometry at 20–24 weeks of gestation and newborn child's birth weight . Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health , 77 : 47 – 52 .
  • Hansen , C. , Neller , A. , Williams , G. and Simpson , R. 2006 . Maternal exposure to low levels of ambient air pollution and preterm birth in Brisbane, Australia . BJOG , 113 : 935 – 941 .
  • Hansen , E. S. , Hasle , H. and Lander , F. 1992 . A cohort study on cancer incidence among Danish gardeners . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 21 : 651 – 660 .
  • Hansen , O. N. , Trillingsgaard , A. , Beese , I. , Lyngbye , T. and Grandjean , P. 1989 . A neuropsychological study of children with elevated dentine lead level: assessment of the effect of lead in different socio-economic groups . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 11 : 205 – 213 .
  • Harada , M. 1977 . “ Congenital Minimata disease ” . In Minimata disease: Methylmercury poisoning in Minimata and Niigata, Japan , Edited by: Tsubaki , R. and Irukayama , K. 209 – 239 . New York : Elsevier Scientific .
  • Harada , M. 1978 . Congenital Minamata disease: Intrauterine methylmercury poisoning . Teratology , 18 : 285 – 288 .
  • Harada , M. 1995 . Minamata disease: methylmercury poisoning in Japan caused by environmental pollution . Crit. Rev. Toxicol. , 25 : 1 – 24 .
  • Harada , M. , Akagi , H. , Tsuda , T. , Kizaki , T. and Ohno , H. 1999 . Methylmercury level in umbilical cords from patients with congenital Minamata disease . Sci. Total Environ. , 234 : 59 – 62 .
  • Hardell , L. , Bavel , B. , Lindstrom , G. , Eriksson , M. and Carlberg , M. 2006 . In utero exposure to persistent organic pollutants in relation to testicular cancer risk . Int. J. Androl. , 29 : 228 – 234 .
  • Hardell , L. , van Bavel , B. , Lindstrom , G. , Carlberg , M. , Dreifaldt , A. C. , Wijkstrom , H. , Starkhammar , H. , Eriksson , M. , Hallquist , A. and Kolmert , T. 2003 . Increased concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls, hexachlorobenzene, and chlordanes in mothers of men with testicular cancer . Environ. Health Perspect. , 111 : 930 – 934 .
  • Harrison , R. M. , Leung , P. L. , Somervaille , L. , Smith , R. and Gilman , E. 1999 . Analysis of incidence of childhood cancer in the West Midlands of the United Kingdom in relation to proximity to main roads and petrol stations . Occup. Environ. Med. , 56 : 774 – 780 .
  • Harvey , P. G. , Hamlin , M. W. , Kumar , R. , Morgan , G. and Spurgeon , A. 1988 . Relationships between blood lead, behavior, psychometric and neuropsychological test performance in young children . Br. J. Dev. Psychol. , 6 : 145 – 156 .
  • Hassan , M. A. and Killick , S. R. 2004 . Negative lifestyle is associated with a significant reduction in fecundity . Fertil. Steril. , 81 : 384 – 392 .
  • He , P. , Liu , D. H. and Zhang , G. Q. 1994 . Effects of high-level-manganese sewage irrigation on children's neurobehavior . Chung Hua Yu Fang I Hsueh Tsa Chih , 28 : 216 – 218 .
  • Heacock , H. , Hertzman , C. , Demers , P. A. , Gallagher , R. , Hogg , R. S. , Teschke , K. , Hershler , R. , Bajdik , C. D. , Dimich-Ward , H. , Marion , S. A. , Ostry , A. and Kelly , S. 2000 . Childhood cancer in the offspring of male sawmill workers occupationally exposed to chlorophenate fungicides . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 : 499 – 503 .
  • Health Canada . 2003 . Canadian perinatal health report, 2003 , Ottawa : Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada .
  • Heinrich , J. , Hoelscher , B. , Frye , C. , Meyer , I. , Pitz , M. , Cyrys , J. , Wjst , M. , Neas , L. and Wichmann , H. E. 2002 . Improved air quality in reunified Germany and decreases in respiratory symptoms . Epidemiology , 13 : 394 – 401 .
  • Hemminki , K. , Kyyronen , P. and Lindbohm , M. L. 1985 . Spontaneous abortions and malformations in the offspring of nurses exposed to anaesthetic gases, cytostatic drugs, and other potential hazards in hospitals, based on registered information of outcome . J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health , 39 : 141 – 147 .
  • Herrstrom , P. , Schutz , A. , Raihle , G. , Holthuis , N. , Hogstedt , B. and Rastam , L. 1995 . Dental amalgam, low-dose exposure to mercury, and urinary proteins in young Swedish men . Arch. Environ. Health , 50 : 103 – 107 .
  • Hertz-Picciotto , I. 2000 . . The evidence that lead increases the risk for spontaneous abortion . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 38 : 300 – 309 .
  • Hertz-Picciotto , I. , Charles , M. J. , James , R. A. , Keller , J. A. , Willman , E. and Teplin , S. 2005 . In utero polychlorinated biphenyl exposures in relation to fetal and early childhood growth . Epidemiology , 16 : 648 – 656 .
  • Hery , M. , Hecht , G. , Gerber , J. M. , Gendre , J. C. , Hubert , G. and Rebuffaud , J. 1995 . Exposure to chloramines in the atmosphere of indoor swimming pools . Ann. Occup. Hyg. , 39 : 427 – 439 .
  • Hewitt , J. B. and Tellier , L. 1998 . Risk of adverse outcomes in pregnant women exposed to solvents . J. Obstet. Gynecol. Neonatal Nurs. , 27 : 521 – 531 .
  • Hinckley , A. F. , Bachand , A. M. and Reif , J. S. 2005 . Late pregnancy exposures to disinfection by-products and growth-related birth outcomes . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 1808 – 1813 .
  • Hing , E. , Cherry , D. K. and Woodwell , D. A. 2006 . National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey: 2004 summary . Adv. Data , : 1 – 33 .
  • Hjollund , N. H. , Bonde , J. P. , Jensen , T. K. , Henriksen , T. B. , Andersson , A. M. , Kolstad , H. A. , Ernst , E. , Giwercman , A. , Skakkebaek , N. E. and Olsen , J. 2000 . Male-mediated spontaneous abortion among spouses of stainless steel welders . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 26 : 187 – 192 .
  • Hjollund , N. H. , Bonde , J. P. , Jensen , T. K. , Henriksen , T. B. , Kolstad , H. A. , Ernst , E. , Giwercman , A. , Pritzl , G. , Skakkebaek , N. E. and Olsen , J. 1998 . A follow-up study of male exposure to welding and time to pregnancy . Reprod. Toxicol. , 12 : 29 – 37 .
  • Hoar Zahm , S. , Blair , A. , Holmes , F. F. , Boysen , C. D. and Robel , R. J. 1988 . A case-referent study of soft-tissue sarcoma and Hodgkin's disease. Farming and insecticide use . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 14 : 224 – 230 .
  • Holly , E. A. , Aston , D. A. , Ahn , D. K. and Kristiansen , J. J. 1992 . Ewing's bone sarcoma, paternal occupational exposure, and other factors . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 135 : 122 – 129 .
  • Holly , E. A. , Bracci , P. M. , Mueller , B. A. and Preston-Martin , S. 1998 . Farm and animal exposures and pediatric brain tumors: Results from the United States West Coast Childhood Brain Tumor Study . Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. , 7 : 797 – 802 .
  • Hong , Y. C. , Lee , K. H. , Son , B. K. , Ha , E. H. , Moon , H. S. and Ha , M. 2003 . Effects of the GSTM1 and GSTT1 polymorphisms on the relationship between maternal exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and neonatal birth weight . J. Occup. Environ. Med. , 45 : 492 – 498 .
  • Hopenhayn , C. , Ferreccio , C. , Browning , S. R. , Huang , B. , Peralta , C. , Gibb , H. and Hertz-Picciotto , I. 2003 . Arsenic exposure from drinking water and birth weight . Epidemiology , 14 : 593 – 602 .
  • Hopenhayn-Rich , C. , Browning , S. R. , Hertz-Picciotto , I. , Ferreccio , C. , Peralta , C. and Gibb , H. 2000 . Chronic arsenic exposure and risk of infant mortality in two areas of Chile . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 : 667 – 673 .
  • Hoppin , J. A. , Tolbert , P. E. , Flanders , W. D. , Zhang , R. H. , Daniels , D. S. , Ragsdale , B. D. and Brann , E. A. 1999 . . Occupational risk factors for sarcoma subtypes . Epidemiology , 10 : 300 – 306 .
  • Hosie , S. , Loff , S. , Witt , K. , Niessen , K. and Waag , K. L. 2000 . Is there a correlation between organochlorine compounds and undescended testes? . Eur. J. Pediatr. Surg. , 10 : 304 – 309 .
  • Howe , G. R. , Burch , J. D. , Chiarelli , A. M. , Risch , H. A. and Choi , B. C. 1989 . An exploratory case-control study of brain tumors in children . Cancer Res. , 49 : 4349 – 4352 .
  • Hruba , D. and Kachlik , P. 2000 . Influence of maternal active and passive smoking during pregnancy on birthweight in newborns . Cent. Eur. J. Public Health , 8 : 249 – 252 .
  • Hsu , M. M. , Mak , C. P. and Hsu , C. C. 1995 . Follow-up of skin manifestations in Yu-Cheng children . Br. J. Dermatol. , 132 : 427 – 32 .
  • Hu , H. 1991 . Knowledge of diagnosis and reproductive history among survivors of childhood plumbism . Am. J. Public Health , 81 : 1070 – 1072 .
  • Hu , H. , Tellez-Rojo , M. M. , Bellinger , D. , Smith , D. , Ettinger , A. S. , Lamadrid-Figueroa , H. , Schwartz , J. , Schnaas , L. , Mercado-Garcia , A. and Hernandez-Avila , M. 2006 . Fetal lead exposure at each stage of pregnancy as a predictor of infant mental development . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 1730 – 1735 .
  • Huel , G. , Boudene , C. and Ibrahim , M. A. 1981 . Cadmium and lead content of maternal and newborn hair: relationship to parity, birth weight, and hypertension . Arch. Environ. Health , 36 : 221 – 227 .
  • Huisman , M. , Koopman-Esseboom , C. , Fidler , V. , Hadders-Algra , M. , van der Paauw , C. G. , Tuinstra , L. G. , Weisglas-Kuperus , N. , Sauer , P. J. , Touwen , B. C. and Boersma , E. R. 1995a . Perinatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins and its effect on neonatal neurological development . Early Hum. Dev. , 41 : 111 – 127 .
  • Huisman , M. , Koopman-Esseboom , C. , Lanting , C. I. , van der Paauw , C. G. , Tuinstra , L. G. , Fidler , V. , Weisglas-Kuperus , N. , Sauer , P. J. , Boersma , E. R. and Touwen , B. C. 1995b . Neurological condition in 18-month-old children perinatally exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins . Early Hum. Dev. , 43 : 165 – 176 .
  • Hull , M. G. , North , K. , Taylor , H. , Farrow , A. and Ford , W. C. 2000 . Delayed conception and active and passive smoking. The Avon Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood Study Team . Fertil. Steril. , 74 : 725 – 733 .
  • Hum , L. , Kreiger , N. and Finkelstein , M. M. 1998 . The relationship between parental occupation and bone cancer risk in offspring . Int. J. Epidemiol. , 27 : 766 – 771 .
  • Hunt , P. A. , Koehler , K. E. , Susiarjo , M. , Hodges , C. A. , Ilagan , A. , Voigt , R. C. , Thomas , S. , Thomas , B. F. and Hassold , T. J. 2003 . Bisphenol A exposure causes meiotic aneuploidy in the female mouse . Curr. Biol. , 13 : 546 – 553 .
  • Huynh , M. , Woodruff , T. J. , Parker , J. D. and Schoendorf , K. C. 2006 . Relationships between air pollution and preterm birth in California . Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. , 20 : 454 – 461 .
  • Hwang , B. F. and Jaakkola , J. J. 2003 . Water chlorination and birth defects: A systematic review and meta-analysis . Arch. Environ. Health , 58 : 83 – 91 .
  • Hwang , B. F. , Magnus , P. and Jaakkola , J. J. 2002 . Risk of specific birth defects in relation to chlorination and the amount of natural organic matter in the water supply . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 156 : 374 – 382 .
  • Idrovo , A. J. , Sanin , L. H. , Cole , D. , Chavarro , J. , Caceres , H. , Narvaez , J. and Restrepo , M. 2005 . Time to first pregnancy among women working in agricultural production . Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health , 78 : 493 – 500 .
  • Ihrig , M. M. , Shalat , S. L. and Baynes , C. 1998 . A hospital-based case-control study of stillbirths and environmental exposure to arsenic using an atmospheric dispersion model linked to a geographical information system . Epidemiology , 9 : 290 – 294 .
  • Infante-Rivard , C. , Amre , D. and Sinnett , D. 2002 . GSTT1 and CYP2E1 polymorphisms and trihalomethanes in drinking water: Effect on childhood leukemia . Environ. Health Perspect. , 110 : 591 – 593 .
  • Infante-Rivard , C. , Krajinovic , M. , Labuda , D. and Sinnett , D. 2000 . Parental smoking, CYP1A1 genetic polymorphisms and childhood leukemia (Quebec, Canada) . Cancer Causes Control , 11 : 547 – 553 .
  • Infante-Rivard , C. , Labuda , D. , Krajinovic , M. and Sinnett , D. 1999 . Risk of childhood leukemia associated with exposure to pesticides and with gene polymorphisms . Epidemiology , 10 : 481 – 487 .
  • Infante-Rivard , C. , Mur , P. , Armstrong , B. , Alvarez-Dardet , C. and Bolumar , F. 1991 . Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia among Spanish children and mothers’ occupation: A case-control study . J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health , 45 : 11 – 15 .
  • Infante-Rivard , C. , Olson , E. , Jacques , L. and Ayotte , P. 2001 . Drinking water contaminants and childhood leukemia . Epidemiology , 12 : 13 – 19 .
  • Infante-Rivard , C. , Siemiatycki , J. , Lakhani , R. and Nadon , L. 2005 . Maternal exposure to occupational solvents and childhood leukemia . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 787 – 792 .
  • Infante-Rivard , C. and Sinnett , D. 1999 . Preconceptional paternal exposure to pesticides and increased risk of childhood leukaemia . Lancet , 354 : 1819
  • Infante-Rivard , C. and Weichenthal , S. 2006 . Pesticides and childhood cancer: an update of Zahm and Ward's 1998 review . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B , 10 : 81 – 99 .
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer . 1989 . IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Vol. 46. Diesel and gasoline engine exhausts and some nitroarenes , Lyon : France .
  • International Clearinghouse for Birth Defect Monitoring Systems . 2000 . Annual report 2000 , Rome : International Centre for Birth Defects .
  • Irgens , A. , Kruger , K. , Skorve , A. H. and Irgens , L. M. 1998 . Reproductive outcome in offspring of parents occupationally exposed to lead in Norway . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 34 : 431 – 437 .
  • Irgens , A. , Kruger , K. , Skorve , A. H. and Irgens , L. M. 2000 . Birth defects and paternal occupational exposure. Hypotheses tested in a record linkage based dataset . Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. , 79 : 465 – 470 .
  • Jaakkola , J. J. and Jaakkola , M. S. 2002 . Effects of environmental tobacco smoke on the respiratory health of children . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 28 ( Suppl. 2 ) : 71 – 83 .
  • Jaakkola , J. J. , Jaakkola , N. and Zahlsen , K. 2001a . Fetal growth and length of gestation in relation to prenatal exposure to environmental tobacco smoke assessed by hair nicotine concentration . Environ. Health Perspect. , 109 : 557 – 561 .
  • Jaakkola , J. J. , Magnus , P. , Skrondal , A. , Hwang , B. F. , Becher , G. and Dybing , E. 2001b . Foetal growth and duration of gestation relative to water chlorination . Occup. Environ. Med. , 58 : 437 – 442 .
  • Jackson , L. W. , Correa-Villasenor , A. , Lees , P. S. , Dominici , F. , Stewart , P. A. , Breysse , P. N. and Matanoski , G. 2004 . Parental lead exposure and total anomalous pulmonary venous return . Birth Defects Res. A Clin. Mol. Teratol. , 70 : 185 – 193 .
  • Jacobson , J. L. and Jacobson , S. W. 1996a . Dose-response in perinatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): The Michigan and North Carolina cohort studies . Toxicol. Ind. Health , 12 : 435 – 445 .
  • Jacobson , J. L. and Jacobson , S. W. 1996b . Intellectual impairment in children exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls in utero . N. Engl. J. Med. , 335 : 783 – 789 .
  • Jacobson , J. L. and Jacobson , S. W. 2003 . Prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and attention at school age . J. Pediatr. , 143 : 780 – 788 .
  • Jacobson , J. L. , Jacobson , S. W. and Humphrey , H. E. 1990a . Effects of in utero exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and related contaminants on cognitive functioning in young children . J. Pediatr. , 116 : 38 – 45 .
  • Jacobson , J. L. , Jacobson , S. W. and Humphrey , H. E. 1990b . Effects of exposure to PCBs and related compounds on growth and activity in children . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 12 : 319 – 326 .
  • Jacobson , S. W. , Fein , G. G. , Jacobson , J. L. , Schwartz , P. M. and Dowler , J. K. 1985 . The effect of intrauterine PCB exposure on visual recognition memory . Child Dev. , 56 : 853 – 860 .
  • Jan , J. and Vrbic , V. 2000 . Polychlorinated biphenyls cause developmental enamel defects in children . Caries Res. , 34 : 469 – 473 .
  • Jarrell , J. , Gocmen , A. , Foster , W. , Brant , R. , Chan , S. and Sevcik , M. 1998 . Evaluation of reproductive outcomes in women inadvertently exposed to hexachlorobenzene in southeastern Turkey in the 1950s . Reprod. Toxicol. , 12 : 469 – 476 .
  • Jarup , L. , Briggs , D. , de Hoogh , C. , Morris , S. , Hurt , C. , Lewin , A. , Maitland , I. , Richardson , S. , Wakefield , J. and Elliott , P. 2002 . Cancer risks in populations living near landfill sites in Great Britain . Br. J. Cancer , 86 : 1732 – 1736 .
  • Jedrychowski , W. , Bendkowska , I. , Flak , E. , Penar , A. , Jacek , R. , Kaim , I. , Spengler , J. D. , Camann , D. and Perera , F. P. 2004 . Estimated risk for altered fetal growth resulting from exposure to fine particles during pregnancy: An epidemiologic prospective cohort study in Poland . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 1398 – 1402 .
  • Jedrychowski , W. , Jankowski , J. , Flak , E. , Skarupa , A. , Mroz , E. , Sochacka-Tatara , E. , Lisowska-Miszczyk , I. , Szpanowska-Wohn , A. , Rauh , V. , Skolicki , Z. , Kaim , I. and Perera , F. 2006 . Effects of prenatal exposure to mercury on cognitive and psychomotor function in one-year-old infants: Epidemiologic cohort study in Poland . Ann. Epidemiol. , 16 : 439 – 447 .
  • Jelliffe-Pawlowski , L. L. , Miles , S. Q. , Courtney , J. G. , Materna , B. and Charlton , V. 2006 . Effect of magnitude and timing of maternal pregnancy blood lead (Pb) levels on birth outcomes . J. Perinatol. , 26 : 154 – 162 .
  • Joffe , M. , Bisanti , L. , Apostoli , P. , Kiss , P. , Dale , A. , Roeleveld , N. , Lindbohm , M. L. , Sallmen , M. , Vanhoorne , M. and Bonde , J. P. 2003 . Time to pregnancy and occupational lead exposure . Occup. Environ. Med. , 60 : 752 – 758 .
  • Joffe , M. , Key , J. , Best , N. , Keiding , N. , Scheike , T. and Jensen , T. K. 2005 . Studying time to pregnancy by use of a retrospective design . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 162 : 115 – 124 .
  • Johnson , B. L. and DeRosa , C. T. 1995 . Chemical mixtures released from hazardous waste sites: implications for health risk assessment . Toxicology , 105 : 145 – 156 .
  • Johnson , C. C. , Annegers , J. F. , Frankowski , R. F. , Spitz , M. R. and Buffler , P. A. 1987 . Childhood nervous system tumors—An evaluation of the association with paternal occupational exposure to hydrocarbons . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 126 : 605 – 613 .
  • Johnson , C. C. , Feingold , M. and Tilley , B. 1990 . A meta-analysis of exposure to phenoxy acid herbicides and chlorophenols in relation to risk of soft tissue sarcoma . Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health , 62 : 513 – 20 .
  • Kafourou , A. , Touloumi , G. , Makropoulos , V. , Loutradi , A. , Papanagiotou , A. and Hatzakis , A. 1997 . Effects of lead on the somatic growth of children . Arch. Environ. Health , 52 : 377 – 383 .
  • Kaiser , R. , Romieu , I. , Medina , S. , Schwartz , J. , Krzyzanowski , M. and Kunzli , N. 2004 . Air pollution attributable postneonatal infant mortality in U.S. metropolitan areas: A risk assessment study . Environ. Health , 3 : 1 – 6 .
  • Kallen , B. A. and Robert , E. 2000 . Drinking water chlorination and delivery outcome-a registry-based study in Sweden . Reprod. Toxicol. , 14 : 303 – 309 .
  • Karmaus , W. , Asakevich , S. , Indurkhya , A. , Witten , J. and Kruse , H. 2002 . Childhood growth and exposure to dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethene and polychlorinated biphenyls . J. Pediatr. , 140 : 33 – 39 .
  • Karmaus , W. , Davis , S. , Chen , Q. , Kuehr , J. and Kruse , H. 2003 . Atopic manifestations, breast-feeding protection and the adverse effect of DDE . Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. , 17 : 212 – 220 .
  • Karmaus , W. , Kuehr , J. and Kruse , H. 2001 . Infections and atopic disorders in childhood and organochlorine exposure . Arch. Environ. Health , 56 : 485 – 492 .
  • Karmaus , W. and Wolf , N. 1995 . Reduced birthweight and length in the offspring of females exposed to PCDFs, PCP, and lindane . Environ. Health Perspect. , 103 : 1120 – 1125 .
  • Karmaus , W. and Zhu , X. 2004 . Maternal concentration of polychlorinated biphenyls and dichlorodiphenyl dichlorethylene and birth weight in Michigan fish eaters: A cohort study . Environ. Health , 3 : 1 – 9 .
  • Karpati , A. M. , Perrin , M. C. , Matte , T. , Leighton , J. , Schwartz , J. and Barr , R. G. 2004 . Pesticide spraying for West Nile virus control and emergency department asthma visits in New York City, 2000 . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 1183 – 1187 .
  • Kasim , K. , Levallois , P. , Abdous , B. , Auger , P. and Johnson , K. C. 2005 . Environmental tobacco smoke and risk of adult leukemia . Epidemiology , 16 : 672 – 680 .
  • keOliveira , L. M. , Stein , N. , Sanseverino , M. T. , Vargas , V. M. , Fachel , J. M. and Schuler , L. 2002 . Reproductive outcomes in an area adjacent to a petrochemical plant in southern Brazil . Rev. Saude Publica , 36 : 81 – 87 .
  • Kerr , M. A. , Nasca , P. C. , Mundt , K. A. , Michalek , A. M. , Baptiste , M. S. and Mahoney , M. C. 2000 . Parental occupational exposures and risk of neuroblastoma: A case-control study (United States) . Cancer Causes Control , 11 : 635 – 643 .
  • Khanjani , N. and Sim , M. R. 2006 . Reproductive outcomes of maternal contamination with cyclodiene insecticides, hexachlorobenzene and beta-benzene hexachloride . Sci. Total Environ. , 368 : 557 – 564 .
  • Khanjani , N. and Sim , M. R. 2007 . Maternal contamination with PCBs and reproductive outcomes in an Australian population . J. Expos. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. , 17 : 191 – 195 .
  • Kharrazi , M. , DeLorenze , G. N. , Kaufman , F. L. , Eskenazi , B. , Bernert , J. T. Jr. , Graham , S. , Pearl , M. and Pirkle , J. 2004 . Environmental tobacco smoke and pregnancy outcome . Epidemiology , 15 : 660 – 670 .
  • Kharrazi , M. , Von Behren , J. , Smith , M. , Lomas , T. , Armstrong , M. , Broadwin , R. , Blake , E. , McLaughlin , B. , Worstell , G. and Goldman , L. 1997 . A community-based study of adverse pregnancy outcomes near a large hazardous waste landfill in California . Toxicol. Ind. Health , 13 : 299 – 310 .
  • Khattak , S. , K-Moghtader , G. , McMartin , K. , Barrera , M. , Kennedy , D. and Koren , G. 1999 . Pregnancy outcome following gestational exposure to organic solvents: a prospective controlled study . J. Am. Med. Assoc. , 281 : 1106 – 1109 .
  • King , W. D. , Dodds , L. and Allen , A. C. 2000 . Relation between stillbirth and specific chlorination by-products in public water supplies . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 : 883 – 886 .
  • Kogevinas , M. , Becher , H. , Benn , T. , Bertazzi , P. A. , Boffetta , P. , Bueno-de-Mesquita , H. B. , Coggon , D. , Colin , D. , Flesch-Janys , D. , Fingerhut , M. , Green , L. , Kauppinen , T. , Littorin , M. , Lynge , E. , Mathews , J. D. , Neuberger , M. , Pearce , N. and Saracci , R. 1997 . Cancer mortality in workers exposed to phenoxy herbicides, chlorophenols, and dioxins. An expanded and updated international cohort study . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 145 : 1061 – 1075 .
  • Koller , K. , Brown , T. , Spurgeon , A. and Levy , L. 2004 . Recent developments in low-level lead exposure and intellectual impairment in children . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 987 – 994 .
  • Kolstad , H. A. , Bisanti , L. , Roeleveld , N. , Baldi , R. , Bonde , J. P. and Joffe , M. 2000 . Time to pregnancy among male workers of the reinforced plastics industry in Denmark, Italy and The Netherlands. ASCLEPIOS . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 26 : 353 – 358 .
  • Komaki , H. , Maisawa , S. , Sugai , K. , Kobayashi , Y. and Hashimoto , T. 1999 . Tremor and seizures associated with chronic manganese intoxication . Brain Dev. , 21 : 122 – 124 .
  • Komulainen , H. 2004 . Experimental cancer studies of chlorinated by-products . Toxicology , 198 : 239 – 248 .
  • Koopman-Esseboom , C. , Weisglas-Kuperus , N. , de Ridder , M. A. , Van der Paauw , C. G. , Tuinstra , L. G. and Sauer , P. J. 1996 . Effects of polychlorinated biphenyl/dioxin exposure and feeding type on infants’ mental and psychomotor development . Pediatrics , 97 : 700 – 706 .
  • Korrick , S. A. , Chen , C. , Damokosh , A. I. , Ni , J. , Liu , X. , Cho , S. I. , Altshul , L. , Ryan , L. and Xu , X. 2001 . Association of DDT with spontaneous abortion: A case-control study . Ann. Epidemiol. , 11 : 491 – 496 .
  • Kramer , M. D. , Lynch , C. F. , Isacson , P. and Hanson , J. W. 1992 . The association of waterborne chloroform with intrauterine growth retardation . Epidemiology , 3 : 407 – 413 .
  • Krewski , D. , Hogan , V. , Turner , M. C. , Zeman , P. , McDowell , I. , Edwards , N. and Losos , J. 2007 . An integrated framework for risk management and population health . Hum. Ecol. Risk Assessment , 13: : 1288 – 1312 .
  • Kristensen , P. , Andersen , A. , Irgens , L. M. , Bye , A. S. and Sundheim , L. 1996a . Cancer in offspring of parents engaged in agricultural activities in Norway: Incidence and risk factors in the farm environment . Int. J. Cancer , 65 : 39 – 50 .
  • Kristensen , P. , Andersen , A. , Irgens , L. M. , Bye , A. S. and Vagstad , N. 1996b . Testicular cancer and parental use of fertilizers in agriculture . Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. , 5 : 3 – 9 .
  • Kristensen , P. , Irgens , L. M. , Andersen , A. , Bye , A. S. and Sundheim , L. 1997a . Gestational age, birth weight, and perinatal death among births to Norwegian farmers, 1967–1991 . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 146 : 329 – 338 .
  • Kristensen , P. , Irgens , L. M. , Andersen , A. , Bye , A. S. and Sundheim , L. 1997b . Birth defects among offspring of Norwegian farmers, 1967–1991 . Epidemiology , 8 : 537 – 544 .
  • Kristensen , P. , Irgens , L. M. , Daltveit , A. K. and Andersen , A. 1993 . Perinatal outcome among children of men exposed to lead and organic solvents in the printing industry . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 137 : 134 – 144 .
  • Kuhnert , B. R. , Kuhnert , P. M. , Debanne , S. and Williams , T. G. 1987 . The relationship between cadmium, zinc, and birth weight in pregnant women who smoke . Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. , 157 : 1247 – 1251 .
  • Kuijten , R. R. , Bunin , G. R. , Nass , C. C. and Meadows , A. T. 1992 . Parental occupation and childhood astrocytoma: results of a case- control study . Cancer Res. , 52 : 782 – 786 .
  • Lacasana , M. , Vazquez-Grameix , H. , Borja-Aburto , V. H. , Blanco-Munoz , J. , Romieu , I. , Aguilar-Garduno , C. and Garcia , A. M. 2006 . Maternal and paternal occupational exposure to agricultural work and the risk of anencephaly . Occup. Environ. Med. , 63 : 649 – 656 .
  • Lai , T. J. , Guo , Y. L. , Guo , N. W. and Hsu , C. C. 2001 . Effect of prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls on cognitive development in children: A longitudinal study in Taiwan . Br. J. Psychiatry Suppl. , 40 : S49 – S52 .
  • Lai , T. J. , Guo , Y. L. , Yu , M. L. , Ko , H. C. and Hsu , C. C. 1994 . Cognitive development in Yucheng children . Chemosphere , 29 : 2405 – 2411 .
  • Lamb , M. R. , Taylor , S. , Liu , X. , Wolff , M. S. , Borrell , L. , Matte , T. D. , Susser , E. S. and Factor-Litvak , P. 2006 . Prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and postnatal growth: A structural analysis . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 779 – 785 .
  • Lan , S. J. , Yen , Y. Y. , Ko , Y. C. and Chen , E. R. 1989 . Growth and development of permanent teeth germ of transplacental Yu-Cheng babies in Taiwan . Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 42 : 931 – 934 .
  • Landgren , O. 1996 . Environmental pollution and delivery outcome in southern Sweden: A study with central registries . Acta Paediatr. , 85 : 1361 – 1364 .
  • Landrigan , P. J. 1999 . Risk assessment for children and other sensitive populations . Ann. NY Acad. Sci. , 895 : 1 – 9 .
  • Landrigan , P. J. , Schechter , C. B. , Lipton , J. M. , Fahs , M. C. and Schwartz , J. 2002 . Environmental pollutants and disease in American children: Estimates of morbidity, mortality, and costs for lead poisoning, asthma, cancer, and developmental disabilities . Environ. Health Perspect. , 110 : 721 – 728 .
  • Landrigan , P. J. , Whitworth , R. H. , Baloh , R. W. , Staehling , N. W. , Barthel , W. F. and Rosenblum , B. F. 1975 . Neuropsychological dysfunction in children with chronic low-level lead absorption . Lancet , 29 : 708 – 712 .
  • Langholz , B. , Ebi , K. L. , Thomas , D. C. , Peters , J. M. and London , S. J. 2002 . Traffic density and the risk of childhood leukemia in a Los Angeles case-control study . Ann. Epidemiol. , 12 : 482 – 487 .
  • Lanphear , B. P. , Dietrich , K. , Auinger , P. and Cox , C. 2000 . Cognitive deficits associated with blood lead concentrations <10 microg/dl in US children and adolescents . Public Health Rep. , 115 : 521 – 529 .
  • Lanphear , B. P. , Hornung , R. , Khoury , J. , Yolton , K. , Baghurst , P. , Bellinger , D. C. , Canfield , R. L. , Dietrich , K. N. , Bornschein , R. , Greene , T. , Rothenberg , S. J. , Needleman , H. L. , Schnaas , L. , Wasserman , G. , Graziano , J. and Roberts , R. 2005 . Low-level environmental lead exposure and children's intellectual function: an international pooled analysis . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 894 – 899 .
  • Lansdown , R. , Yule , W. , Urbanowicz , M. A. and Hunter , J. 1986 . The relationship between blood-lead concentrations, intelligence, attainment and behaviour in a school population: The second London study . Int. Arch. Occupational and Environ. Health , 57 : 225 – 235 .
  • Lanting , C. I. , Fidler , V. , Huisman , M. and Boersma , E. R. 1998a . Determinants of polychlorinated biphenyl levels in plasma from 42-month- old children . Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 35 : 135 – 139 .
  • Lanting , C. I. , Patandin , S. , Fidler , V. , Weisglas-Kuperus , N. , Sauer , P. J. , Boersma , E. R. and Touwen , B. C. 1998b . Neurological condition in 42-month-old children in relation to pre- and postnatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins . Early Hum. Dev. , 50 : 283 – 92 .
  • Larsen , S. B. , Joffe , M. and Bonde , J. P. 1998 . Time to pregnancy and exposure to pesticides in Danish farmers. ASCLEPIOS Study Group . Occup. Environ. Med. , 55 : 278 – 283 .
  • Laslo-Baker , D. , Barrera , M. , Knittel-Keren , D. , Kozer , E. , Wolpin , J. , Khattak , S. , Hackman , R. , Rovet , J. and Koren , G. 2004 . Child neurodevelopmental outcome and maternal occupational exposure to solvents . Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. , 158 : 956 – 961 .
  • Laumon , B. , Martin , J. L. , Collet , P. , Bertucat , I. , Verney , M. P. and Robert , E. 1996 . Exposure to organic solvents during pregnancy and oral clefts: A case-control study . Reprod. Toxicol. , 10 : 15 – 19 .
  • Law , D. C. , Klebanoff , M. A. , Brock , J. W. , Dunson , D. B. and Longnecker , M. P. 2005 . Maternal serum levels of polychlorinated biphenyls and 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene (DDE) and time to pregnancy . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 162 : 523 – 532 .
  • Lawson , C. C. , Schnorr , T. M. , Whelan , E. A. , Deddens , J. A. , Dankovic , D. A. , Piacitelli , L. A. , Sweeney , M. H. and Connally , L. B. 2004 . Paternal occupational exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-P-dioxin and birth outcomes of offspring: birth weight, preterm delivery, and birth defects . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 1403 – 1408 .
  • Lee , B. E. , Ha , E. H. , Park , H. S. , Kim , Y. J. , Hong , Y. C. , Kim , H. and Lee , J. T. 2003 . Exposure to air pollution during different gestational phases contributes to risks of low birth weight . Hum. Reprod. , 18 : 638 – 643 .
  • Leem , J. H. , Kaplan , B. M. , Shim , Y. K. , Pohl , H. R. , Gotway , C. A. , Bullard , S. M. , Rogers , J. F. , Smith , M. M. and Tylenda , C. A. 2006 . Exposures to air pollutants during pregnancy and preterm delivery . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 905 – 910 .
  • Leiss , J. K. and Savitz , D. A. 1995 . Home pesticide use and childhood cancer: A case-control study . Am. J. Public Health , 85 : 249 – 252 .
  • Levario-Carrillo , M. , Amato , D. , Ostrosky-Wegman , P. , Gonzalez-Horta , C. , Corona , Y. and Sanin , L. H. 2004 . Relation between pesticide exposure and intrauterine growth retardation . Chemosphere , 55 : 1421 – 1427 .
  • Leviton , A. , Bellinger , D. , Allred , E. N. , Rabinowitz , M. , Needleman , H. and Schoenbaum , S. 1993 . Pre- and postnatal low-level lead exposure and children's dysfunction in school . Environ. Res. , 60 : 30 – 43 .
  • Li , J. S. , Peat , J. K. , Xuan , W. and Berry , G. 1999 . Meta-analysis on the association between environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposure and the prevalence of lower respiratory tract infection in early childhood . Pediatr. Pulmonol. , 27 : 5 – 13 .
  • Li , Y. F. , Langholz , B. , Salam , M. T. and Gilliland , F. D. 2005 . Maternal and grandmaternal smoking patterns are associated with early childhood asthma . Chest , 127 : 1232 – 1241 .
  • Lidsky , T. I. and Schneider , J. S. 2003 . Lead neurotoxicity in children: Basic mechanisms and clinical correlates . Brain , 126 : 5 – 19 .
  • Lin , M. , Chen , Y. , Villeneuve , P. J. , Burnett , R. T. , Lemyre , L. , Hertzman , C. , McGrail , K. M. and Krewski , D. 2004 . Gaseous air pollutants and asthma hospitalization of children with low household income in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 159 : 294 – 303 .
  • Lin , M. C. , Chiu , H. F. , Yu , H. S. , Tsai , S. S. , Cheng , B. H. , Wu , T. N. , Sung , F. C. and Yang , C. Y. 2001a . Increased risk of preterm delivery in areas with air pollution from a petroleum refinery plant in Taiwan . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 64 : 637 – 644 .
  • Lin , M. C. , Yu , H. S. , Tsai , S. S. , Cheng , B. H. , Hsu , T. Y. , Wu , T. N. and Yang , C. Y. 2001b . Adverse pregnancy outcome in a petrochemical polluted area in Taiwan . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 63 : 565 – 574 .
  • Lin , S. , Hwang , S. A. , Marshall , E. G. and Marion , D. 1998 . Does paternal occupational lead exposure increase the risks of low birth weight or prematurity? . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 148 : 173 – 181 .
  • Lin , S. , Marshall , E. G. and Davidson , G. K. 1994 . Potential parental exposure to pesticides and limb reduction defects . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 20 : 166 – 179 .
  • Lindbohm , M. L. , Hemminki , K. , Bonhomme , M. G. , Anttila , A. , Rantala , K. , Heikkila , P. and Rosenberg , M. J. 1991a . Effects of paternal occupational exposure on spontaneous abortions . Am. J. Public Health , 81 : 1029 – 1033 .
  • Lindbohm , M. L. , Sallmen , M. , Anttila , A. , Taskinen , H. and Hemminki , K. 1991b . Paternal occupational lead exposure and spontaneous abortion . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 17 : 95 – 103 .
  • Lindbohm , M. L. , Sallmen , M. and Taskinen , H. 2002 . Effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke on reproductive health . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 28 ( Suppl 2 ) : 84 – 96 .
  • Linet , M. S. , Ries , L. A. , Smith , M. A. , Tarone , R. E. and Devesa , S. S. 1999 . Cancer surveillance series: recent trends in childhood cancer incidence and mortality in the United States . JNCI , 91 : 1051 – 1058 .
  • Liu , S. , Krewski , D. , Shi , Y. , Chen , Y. and Burnett , R. T. 2003 . Association between gaseous ambient air pollutants and adverse pregnancy outcomes in Vancouver, Canada . Environ. Health Perspect. , 111 : 1773 – 1778 .
  • Loffredo , C. A. , Silbergeld , E. K. , Ferencz , C. and Zhang , J. 2001 . Association of transposition of the great arteries in infants with maternal exposures to herbicides and rodenticides . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 153 : 529 – 536 .
  • Loghman-Adham , M. 1997 . Renal effects of environmental and occupational lead exposure . Environ. Health Perspect. , 105 : 928 – 939 .
  • Logman , J. F. , de Vries , L. E. , Hemels , M. E. , Khattak , S. and Einarson , T. R. 2005 . Paternal organic solvent exposure and adverse pregnancy outcomes: A meta-analysis . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 47 : 37 – 44 .
  • Loiacono , N. J. , Graziano , J. H. , Kline , J. K. , Popovac , D. , Ahmedi , X. , Gashi , E. , Mehmeti , A. and Rajovic , B. 1992 . Placental cadmium and birthweight in women living near a lead smelter . Arch. Environ. Health , 47 : 250 – 255 .
  • Longnecker , M. P. , Hoffman , H. J. , Klebanoff , M. A. , Brock , J. W. , Zhou , H. , Needham , L. , Adera , T. , Guo , X. and Gray , K. A. 2004 . In utero exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and sensorineural hearing loss in 8-year-old children . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 26 : 629 – 637 .
  • Longnecker , M. P. , Klebanoff , M. A. , Brock , J. W. and Guo , X. 2005 . Maternal levels of polychlorinated biphenyls in relation to preterm and small-for-gestational-age birth . Epidemiology , 16 : 641 – 647 .
  • Longnecker , M. P. , Klebanoff , M. A. , Brock , J. W. , Zhou , H. , Gray , K. A. , Needham , L. L. and Wilcox , A. J. 2002 . . Maternal serum level of 1,1-dichloro–2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene and risk of cryptorchidism, hypospadias, and polythelia among male offspring . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 155 : 313 – 322 .
  • Longnecker , M. P. , Klebanoff , M. A. , Dunson , D. B. , Guo , X. , Chen , Z. , Zhou , H. and Brock , J. W. 2005 . Maternal serum level of the DDT metabolite DDE in relation to fetal loss in previous pregnancies . Environ. Res. , 97 : 127 – 133 .
  • Longnecker , M. P. , Klebanoff , M. A. , Zhou , H. and Brock , J. W. 2001 . Association between maternal serum concentration of the DDT metabolite DDE and preterm and small-for-gestational-age babies at birth . Lancet , 358 : 110 – 114 .
  • Longnecker , M. P. , Rogan , W. J. and Lucier , G. 1997 . The human health effects of DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) and an overview of organochlorines in public health . Annu. Rev. Public Health , 18 : 211 – 244 .
  • Longnecker , M. P. , Wolff , M. S. , Gladen , B. C. , Brock , J. W. , Grandjean , P. , Jacobson , J. L. , Korrick , S. A. , Rogan , W. J. , Weisglas-Kuperus , N. , Hertz-Picciotto , I. , Ayotte , P. , Stewart , P. , Winneke , G. , Charles , M. J. , Jacobson , S. W. , Dewailly , E. , Boersma , E. R. , Altshul , L. M. , Heinzow , B. , Pagano , J. J. and Jensen , A. A. 2003 . Comparison of polychlorinated biphenyl levels across studies of human neurodevelopment . Environ. Health Perspect. , 111 : 65 – 70 .
  • Lorente , C. , Cordier , S. , Bergeret , A. , De Walle , H. E. , Goujard , J. , Ayme , S. , Knill-Jones , R. , Calzolari , E. and Bianchi , F. 2000 . Maternal occupational risk factors for oral clefts. Occupational Exposure and Congenital Malformation Working Group . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 26 : 137 – 145 .
  • Lowengart , R. A. , Peters , J. M. , Cicioni , C. , Buckley , J. , Bernstein , L. , Preston-Martin , S. and Rappaport , E. 1987 . . Childhood leukemia and parents’ occupational and home exposures . JNCI , 79 : 39 – 46 .
  • Luderer , U. , Bushley , A. , Stover , B. D. , Bremner , W. J. , Faustman , E. M. , Takaro , T. K. , Checkoway , H. and Brodkin , C. A. 2004 . Effects of occupational solvent exposure on reproductive hormone concentrations and fecundability in men . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 46 : 614 – 626 .
  • Lund , K. E. and Helgason , A. R. 2005 . Environmental tobacco smoke in Norwegian homes, 1995 and 2001: changes in children's exposure and parents attitudes and health risk awareness . Eur. J. Public Health , 15 : 123 – 127 .
  • Lynge , E. 1998 . Cancer incidence in Danish phenoxy herbicide workers, 1947–1993 . Environ. Health Perspect. , 106 ( Suppl. 2 ) : 683 – 688 .
  • Ma , S. K. , Wan , T. S. and Chan , L. C. 1999 . Cytogenetics and molecular genetics of childhood leukemia . Hematol. Oncol. , 17 : 91 – 105 .
  • Ma , X. , Buffler , P. A. , Gunier , R. B. , Dahl , G. , Smith , M. T. , Reinier , K. and Reynolds , P. 2002 . Critical windows of exposure to household pesticides and risk of childhood leukemia . Environ. Health Perspect. , 110 : 955 – 960 .
  • Magnani , C. , Pastore , G. , Luzzatto , L. and Terracini , B. 1990 . Parental occupation and other environmental factors in the etiology of leukemias and nonHodgkin's lymphomas in childhood: A case-control study . Tumori , 76 : 413 – 419 .
  • Magnus , P. , Jaakkola , J. J. , Skrondal , A. , Alexander , J. , Becher , G. , Krogh , T. and Dybing , E. 1999 . Water chlorination and birth defects . Epidemiology , 10 : 513 – 517 .
  • Maia , A. T. , Koechling , J. , Corbett , R. , Metzler , M. , Wiemels , J. L. and Greaves , M. 2004 . Protracted postnatal natural histories in childhood leukemia . Genes Chromosomes Cancer , 39 : 335 – 340 .
  • Maisonet , M. , Correa , A. , Misra , D. and Jaakkola , J. J. 2004 . A review of the literature on the effects of ambient air pollution on fetal growth . Environ. Res. , 95 : 106 – 115 .
  • Malik , S. , Schecter , A. , Caughy , M. and Fixler , D. E. 2004 . Effect of proximity to hazardous waste sites on the development of congenital heart disease . Arch. Environ. Health , 59 : 177 – 181 .
  • Maroziene , L. and Grazuleviciene , R. 2002 . Maternal exposure to low-level air pollution and pregnancy outcomes: A population-based study . Environ. Health , 1 : 1 – 7 .
  • Marrett , L. D. , Frood , J. , Nishri , D. and Ugnat , A. M. 2002 . Cancer incidence in young adults in Canada: Preliminary results of a cancer surveillance project . Chron. Dis. Can. , 23 : 58 – 64 .
  • Marsh , D. O. , Clarkson , T. W. , Cox , C. , Myers , G. J. , Amin-Zaki , L. and Al-Tikriti , S. 1987 . Fetal methylmercury poisoning. Relationship between concentration in single strands of maternal hair and child effects . Arch. Neurol. , 44 : 1017 – 1022 .
  • Marsh , D. O. , Myers , G. J. , Clarkson , T. W. , Amin-Zaki , L. , Tikriti , S. and Majeed , M. A. 1980 . Fetal methylmercury poisoning: Clinical and toxicological data on 29 cases . Ann. Neurol. , 7 : 348 – 353 .
  • Marsh , D. O. , Myers , G. J. , Clarkson , T. W. , Amin-Zaki , L. , Tikriti , S. , Majeed , M. A. and Dabbagh , A. R. 1981 . Dose-response relationship for human fetal exposure to methylmercury . Clin. Toxicol. , 18 : 1311 – 1318 .
  • Marsh , D. O. , Turner , M. D. , Smith , J. C. , Allen , P. and Richdale , N. 1995 . Fetal methylmercury study in a Peruvian fish-eating population . Neurotoxicology , 16 : 717 – 726 .
  • Marshall , E. G. , Gensburg , L. J. , Deres , D. A. , Geary , N. S. and Cayo , M. R. 1997 . Maternal residential exposure to hazardous wastes and risk of central nervous system and musculoskeletal birth defects . Arch. Environ. Health , 52 : 416 – 425 .
  • Massachusetts Department of Public Health. 1997. Woburn childhood leukemia follow-up study.Volume 1. Analyses. Located http://www.mass.gov/Eeohhs2/docs/dph/environmental/investigations/woburn_cancer_leukemia_follow_up_study_1997.pdf
  • Massachusetts Department of Public Health. 1998. Final report of the Woburn Environment and Birth Study. Located http://www.mass.gov/Eeohhs2/docs/dph/environmental/investigations/woburn_summary_environment_birth_study.pdf
  • Masuda , Y. 2001 . Fate of PCDF/PCB congeners and change of clinical symptoms in patients with Yusho PCB poisoning for 30 years . Chemosphere , 43 : 925 – 930 .
  • Matsubara , F. , Kida , M. , Tamakoshi , A. , Wakai , K. , Kawamura , T. and Ohno , Y. 2000 . Maternal active and passive smoking and fetal growth: A prospective study in Nagoya, Japan . J. Epidemiol. , 10 : 335 – 343 .
  • McConnell , R. , Berhane , K. , Gilliland , F. , London , S. J. , Islam , T. , Gauderman , W. J. , Avol , E. , Margolis , H. G. and Peters , J. M. 2002 . Asthma in exercising children exposed to ozone: A cohort study . Lancet , 359 : 386 – 391 .
  • McConnell , R. , Berhane , K. , Yao , L. , Jerrett , M. , Lurmann , F. , Gilliland , F. , Kunzli , N. , Gauderman , J. , Avol , E. , Thomas , D. and Peters , J. 2006 . Traffic, susceptibility, and childhood asthma . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 766 – 772 .
  • McCredie , M. , Maisonneuve , P. and Boyle , P. 1994a . Antenatal risk factors for malignant brain tumours in New South Wales children . Int. J. Cancer , 56 : 6 – 10 .
  • McCredie , M. , Maisonneuve , P. and Boyle , P. 1994b . Perinatal and early postnatal risk factors for malignant brain tumours in New South Wales children . Int. J. Cancer , 56 : 11 – 15 .
  • McDonald , A. D. , McDonald , J. C. , Armstrong , B. , Cherry , N. M. , Cote , R. , Lavoie , J. , Nolin , A. D. and Robert , D. 1988 . Fetal death and work in pregnancy . Br. J. Ind. Med. , 45 : 148 – 157 .
  • McGready , R. , Hamilton , K. A. , Simpson , J. A. , Cho , T. , Luxemburger , C. , Edwards , R. , Looareesuwan , S. , White , N. J. , Nosten , F. and Lindsay , S. W. 2001 . Safety of the insect repellent N, N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET) in pregnancy . Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. , 65 : 285 – 289 .
  • McKee , R. H. 2004 . Phthalate exposure and early thelarche . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : A541 – A543 .
  • McKinney , P. A. , Fear , N. T. and Stockton , D. 2003 . Parental occupation at periconception: Findings from the United Kingdom Childhood Cancer Study . Occup. Environ. Med. , 60 : 901 – 909 .
  • McMartin , K. I. , Chu , M. , Kopecky , E. , Einarson , T. R. and Koren , G. 1998 . Pregnancy outcome following maternal organic solvent exposure: A meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 34 : 288 – 292 .
  • McMichael , A. J. , Vimpani , G. V. , Robertson , E. F. , Baghurst , P. A. and Clark , P. D. 1986 . The Port Pirie cohort study: Maternal blood lead and pregnancy outcome . J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health , 40 : 18 – 25 .
  • Meinert , R. , Kaatsch , P. , Kaletsch , U. , Krummenauer , F. , Miesner , A. and Michaelis , J. 1996 . Childhood leukaemia and exposure to pesticides: Results of a case- control study in northern Germany . Eur. J. Cancer , 32A : 1943 – 1948 .
  • Meinert , R. , Schuz , J. , Kaletsch , U. , Kaatsch , P. and Michaelis , J. 2000 . Leukemia and nonHodgkin's lymphoma in childhood and exposure to pesticides: Results of a register-based case-control study in Germany . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 151 : 639 – 646 .
  • Meironyte , D. , Noren , K. and Bergman , A. 1999 . Analysis of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in Swedish human milk. A time-related trend study, 1972–1997 . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 58 : 329 – 341 .
  • Mendell , M. J. 2007 . Indoor residential chemical emissions as risk factors for respiratory and allergic effects in children: A review . Indoor Air , 17 : 259 – 277 .
  • Mendelsohn , A. L. , Dreyer , B. P. , Fierman , A. H. , Rosen , C. M. , Legano , L. A. , Kruger , H. A. , Lim , S. W. and Courtlandt , C. D. 1998 . Low-level lead exposure and behavior in early childhood . Pediatrics , 101 : 1 – 7 .
  • Mendola , P. , Selevan , S. G. , Gutter , S. and Rice , D. 2002 . Environmental factors associated with a spectrum of neurodevelopmental deficits . Ment. Retard. Dev. Disabil. Res. Rev. , 8 : 188 – 197 .
  • Menegaux , F. , Baruchel , A. , Bertrand , Y. , Lescoeur , B. , Leverger , G. , Nelken , B. , Sommelet , D. , Hemon , D. and Clavel , J. 2006 . Household exposure to pesticides and risk of childhood acute leukaemia . Occup. Environ. Med. , 63 : 131 – 134 .
  • Menegaux , F. , Steffen , C. , Bellec , S. , Baruchel , A. , Lescoeur , B. , Leverger , G. , Nelken , B. , Philippe , N. , Sommelet , D. , Hemon , D. and Clavel , J. 2005 . Maternal coffee and alcohol consumption during pregnancy, parental smoking and risk of childhood acute leukaemia . Cancer Detect. Prev. , 29 : 487 – 493 .
  • Mes , J. , Arnold , D. L. and Bryce , F. 1995 . The elimination and estimated half-lives of specific polychlorinated biphenyl congeners from the blood of female monkeys after discontinuation of daily dosing with Aroclor 1254 . Chemosphere , 30 : 789 – 800 .
  • Meyer , K. J. , Reif , J. S. , Rao Veeramachaneni , D. N. , Luben , T. J. , Mosley , B. S. and Nuckols , J. R. 2006 . Agricultural pesticide use and hypospadias in eastern Arkansas . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 1589 – 1595 .
  • Michalek , J. E. , Rahe , A. J. and Boyle , C. A. 1998 . Paternal dioxin, preterm birth, intrauterine growth retardation, and infant death . Epidemiology , 9 : 161 – 167 .
  • Millar , W. J. and Hill , G. B. 1998 . Childhood asthma . Health Rep. , 10 : 9 – 21 .
  • Modigh , C. M. , Bodin , S. L. , Lillienberg , L. , Dahlman-Hoglund , A. , Akesson , B. and Axelsson , G. 2002 . Time to pregnancy among partners of men exposed to di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 28 : 418 – 428 .
  • Mol , N. M. , Sorensen , N. , Weihe , P. , Andersson , A. M. , Jorgensen , N. , Skakkebaek , N. E. , Keiding , N. and Grandjean , P. 2002 . Spermaturia and serum hormone concentrations at the age of puberty in boys prenatally exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls . Eur. J. Endocrinol. , 146 : 357 – 363 .
  • Moller , H. 1997 . Work in agriculture, childhood residence, nitrate exposure, and testicular cancer risk: A case-control study in Denmark . Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. , 6 : 141 – 144 .
  • Moore , L. E. , Gold , L. , Stewart , P. A. , Gridley , G. , Prince , J. R. and Zahm , S. H. 2005 . Parental occupational exposures and Ewing's sarcoma . Int. J. Cancer , 114 : 472 – 478 .
  • Moore , L. E. , Lu , M. and Smith , A. H. 2002 . Childhood cancer INCIDENCE and arsenic exposure in drinking water in Nevada . Arch. Environ. Health , 57 : 201 – 206 .
  • Mori , H. , Colman , S. M. , Xiao , Z. , Ford , A. M. , Healy , L. E. , Donaldson , C. , Hows , J. M. , Navarrete , C. and Greaves , M. 2002 . Chromosome translocations and covert leukemic clones are generated during normal fetal development . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA , 99 : 8242 – 8247 .
  • Morris , S. E. , Thomson , A. O. , Jarup , L. , de Hoogh , C. , Briggs , D. J. and Elliott , P. 2003 . No excess risk of adverse birth outcomes in populations living near special waste landfill sites in Scotland . Scott. Med. J. , 48 : 105 – 107 .
  • Morrissey , R. E. , George , J. D. , Price , C. J. , Tyl , R. W. , Marr , M. C. and Kimmel , C. A. 1987 . The developmental toxicity of bisphenol A in rats and mice . Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. , 8 : 571 – 582 .
  • Moss , M. E. , Lanphear , B. P. and Auinger , P. 1999 . Association of dental caries and blood lead levels . J. Am. Med. Assoc. , 281 : 2294 – 2298 .
  • Moya , J. , Bearer , C. F. and Etzel , R. A. 2004 . Children's behavior and physiology and how it affects exposure to environmental contaminants . Pediatrics , 113 : 996 – 1006 .
  • Mueller , B. A. , Newton , K. , Holly , E. A. and Preston-Martin , S. 2001 . Residential water source and the risk of childhood brain tumors . Environ. Health Perspect. , 109 : 551 – 556 .
  • Mueller , B. A. , Nielsen , S. S. , Preston-Martin , S. , Holly , E. A. , Cordier , S. , Filippini , G. , Peris-Bonet , R. and Choi , N. W. 2004 . Household water source and the risk of childhood brain tumours: results of the SEARCH International Brain Tumor Study . Int. J. Epidemiol. , 33 : 1209 – 1216 .
  • Munger , R. , Isacson , P. , Hu , S. , Burns , T. , Hanson , J. , Lynch , C. F. , Cherryholmes , K. , Van Dorpe , P. and Hausler , W. J. 1997 . Intrauterine growth retardation in Iowa communities with herbicide- contaminated drinking water supplies . Environ. Health Perspect. , 105 : 308 – 314 .
  • Murata , K. , Budtz-Jorgensen , E. and Grandjean , P. 2002 . Benchmark dose calculations for methylmercury-associated delays on evoked potential latencies in two cohorts of children . Risk Anal. , 22 : 465 – 474 .
  • Murata , K. , Weihe , P. , Araki , S. , Budtz-Jorgensen , E. and Grandjean , P. 1999 . Evoked potentials in Faroese children prenatally exposed to methylmercury . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 21 : 471 – 472 .
  • Murata , K. , Weihe , P. , Budtz-Jorgensen , E. , Jorgensen , P. J. and Grandjean , P. 2004 . Delayed brainstem auditory evoked potential latencies in 14-year-old children exposed to methylmercury . J. Pediatr. , 144 : 177 – 183 .
  • Murray , C. S. , Woodcock , A. , Smillie , F. I. , Cain , G. , Kissen , P. and Custovic , A. 2004 . Tobacco smoke exposure, wheeze, and atopy . Pediatr. Pulmonol. , 37 : 492 – 498 .
  • Myers , G. J. and Davidson , P. W. 2000 . Does methylmercury have a role in causing developmental disabilities in children? . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 ( Suppl. 3 ) : 413 – 420 .
  • Myers , G. J. , Davidson , P. W. , Cox , C. , Shamlaye , C. , Cernichiari , E. and Clarkson , T. W. 2000 . Twenty-seven years studying the human neurotoxicity of methylmercury exposure . Environ. Res. , 83 : 275 – 285 .
  • Myers , G. J. , Davidson , P. W. , Cox , C. , Shamlaye , C. F. , Palumbo , D. , Cernichiari , E. , Sloane-Reeves , J. , Wilding , G. E. , Kost , J. , Huang , L. S. and Clarkson , T. W. 2003 . Prenatal methylmercury exposure from ocean fish consumption in the Seychelles child development study . Lancet , 361 : 1686 – 1692 .
  • Myers , G. J. , Davidson , P. W. , Palumbo , D. , Shamlaye , C. , Cox , C. , Cernichiari , E. and Clarkson , T. W. 2000 . Secondary analysis from the Seychelles Child Development Study: The child behavior checklist . Environ. Res. , 84 : 12 – 19 .
  • Myers , G. J. , Davidson , P. W. and Shamlaye , C. F. 1998 . A review of methylmercury and child development . Neurotoxicology , 19 : 313 – 328 .
  • Myers , G. J. , Davidson , P. W. , Shamlaye , C. F. , Axtell , C. D. , Cernichiari , E. , Choisy , O. , Choi , A. , Cox , C. and Clarkson , T. W. 1997 . Effects of prenatal methylmercury exposure from a high fish diet on developmental milestones in the Seychelles Child Development Study . Neurotoxicology , 18 : 819 – 829 .
  • Myers , G. J. , Marsh , D. O. , Davidson , P. W. , Cox , C. , Shamlaye , C. F. , Tanner , M. , Choi , A. , Cernichiari , E. , Choisy , O. and Clarkson , T. W. 1995 . Main neurodevelopmental study of Seychellois children following in utero exposure to methylmercury from a maternal fish diet: outcome at six months . Neurotoxicology , 16 : 653 – 664 .
  • National Academy of Sciences. 1993. Pesticides in the diets of infants and children. Located http://fermat.nap.edu/catalog/2126.html
  • National Academy of Sciences. 2000a. Clearing the air. Asthma and indoor air exposures. Located http://fermat.nap.edu/catalog/9610.html
  • National Academy of Sciences . 2000b . Scientific frontiers in developmental toxicology and risk assessment , Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
  • National Academy of Sciences. 2000c. Toxicological effects of methylmercury. Located http://fermat.nap.edu/catalog/9899.html
  • National Academy of Sciences. 2003. Veterans and Agent Orange. Update 2002. Located http://www.nap.edu/catalog/10603.html
  • National Institute of Child Health and Human Development . 2002. The National Children's Study. Located http://nationalchildrensstudy.gov/index.cfm
  • Needleman , H. L. 1997 . Clamped in a straitjacket: The insertion of lead into gasoline . Environ. Res. , 74 : 95 – 103 .
  • Needleman , H. L. and Gatsonis , C. A. 1990 . Low-level lead exposure and the IQ of children. A meta-analysis of modern studies . J. Am. Med. Assoc. , 263 : 673 – 678 .
  • Needleman , H. L. , Gunnoe , C. , Leviton , A. , Reed , R. , Peresie , H. , Maher , C. and Barrett , P. 1979 . Deficits in psychologic and classroom performance of children with elevated dentine lead levels . N. Engl. J. Med. , 300 : 689 – 695 .
  • Needleman , H. L. , McFarland , C. , Ness , R. B. , Fienberg , S. E. and Tobin , M. J. 2002 . Bone lead levels in adjudicated delinquents. A case control study . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 24 : 711 – 717 .
  • Needleman , H. L. , Riess , J. A. , Tobin , M. J. , Biesecker , G. E. and Greenhouse , J. B. 1996 . Bone lead levels and delinquent behavior . J. Am. Med. Assoc. , 275 : 363 – 369 .
  • Needleman , H. L. , Schell , A. , Bellinger , D. , Leviton , A. and Allred , E. N. 1990 . The long-term effects of exposure to low doses of lead in childhood. An 11-year follow-up report . N. Engl. J. Med. , 322 : 83 – 88 .
  • Neri , M. , Ugolini , D. , Bonassi , S. , Fucic , A. , Holland , N. , Knudsen , L. E. , Sram , R. J. , Ceppi , M. , Bocchini , V. and Merlo , D. F. 2006 . Children's exposure to environmental pollutants and biomarkers of genetic damage II. Results of a comprehensive literature search and meta-analysis . Mutat. Res. , 612 : 14 – 39 .
  • Newland , M. C. 2002 . Neurobehavioral toxicity of methylmercury and PCBs. Effects-profiles and sensitive populations . Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. , 12 : 119 – 128 .
  • Nickmilder , M. and Bernard , A. 2007 . Ecological association between childhood asthma and availability of indoor chlorinated swimming pools in Europe . Occup. Environ. Med. , 64 : 37 – 46 .
  • Nielsen , S. S. , Mueller , B. A. , De Roos , A. J. , Viernes , H. M. , Farin , F. M. and Checkoway , H. 2005 . Risk of brain tumors in children and susceptibility to organophosphorus insecticides: The potential role of paraoxonase (PON1) . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 909 – 913 .
  • Nieuwenhuijsen , M. J. , Northstone , K. and Golding , J. 2002 . Swimming and birth weight . Epidemiology , 13 : 725 – 728 .
  • Nieuwenhuijsen , M. J. , Toledano , M. B. , Eaton , N. E. , Fawell , J. and Elliott , P. 2000 . Chlorination disinfection byproducts in water and their association with adverse reproductive outcomes: A review . Occup. Environ. Med. , 57 : 73 – 85 .
  • Nishijo , M. , Nakagawa , H. , Honda , R. , Tanebe , K. , Saito , S. , Teranishi , H. and Tawara , K. 2002 . Effects of maternal exposure to cadmium on pregnancy outcome and breast milk . Occup. Environ. Med. , 59 : 394 – 396 .
  • Nishijo , M. , Tawara , K. , Honda , R. , Nakagawa , H. , Tanebe , K. and Saito , S. 2004 . Relationship between newborn size and mother's blood cadmium levels, Toyama, Japan . Arch. Environ. Health , 59 : 22 – 25 .
  • Noonan , C. W. , Sarasua , S. M. , Campagna , D. , Kathman , S. J. , Lybarger , J. A. and Mueller , P. W. 2002 . Effects of exposure to low levels of environmental cadmium on renal biomarkers . Environ. Health Perspect. , 110 : 151 – 155 .
  • Nordlinder , R. and Jarvholm , B. 1997 . Environmental exposure to gasoline and leukemia in children and young adults—An ecology study . Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health , 70 : 57 – 60 .
  • Nurminen , T. , Rantala , K. , Kurppa , K. and Holmberg , P. C. 1995 . Agricultural work during pregnancy and selected structural malformations in Finland . Epidemiology , 6 : 23 – 30 .
  • O'sullivan , B. C. , Lafleur , J. , Fridal , K. , Hormozdi , S. , Schwartz , S. , Belt , M. and Finkel , M. 2005 . The effect of pesticide spraying on the rate and severity of ED asthma . Am. J. Emerg. Med. , 23 : 463 – 7 .
  • Odland , J. O. , Nieboer , E. , Romanova , N. and Thomassen , Y. 2004 . Elements in placenta and pregnancy outcome in arctic and subarctic areas . Int. J. Circumpolar Health , 63 : 169 – 187 .
  • Oken , E. , Wright , R. O. , Kleinman , K. P. , Bellinger , D. , Amarasiriwardena , C. J. , Hu , H. , Rich-Edwards , J. W. and Gillman , M. W. 2005 . Maternal fish consumption, hair mercury, and infant cognition in a U.S. cohort . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 1376 – 1380 .
  • Olsen , J. , Hemminki , K. , Ahlborg , G. , Bjerkedal , T. , Kyyronen , P. , Taskinen , H. , Lindbohm , M. L. , Heinonen , O. P. , Brandt , L. Kolstad , H. 1990 . Low birthweight, congenital malformations, and spontaneous abortions among dry-cleaning workers in Scandinavia . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 16 : 163 – 168 .
  • Olshan , A. F. , De Roos , A. J. , Teschke , K. , Neglia , J. P. , Stram , D. O. , Pollock , B. H. and Castleberry , R. P. 1999 . Neuroblastoma and parental occupation . Cancer Causes Control , 10 : 539 – 549 .
  • Olshan , A. F. and van Wijngaarden , E. 2003 . Paternal occupation and childhood cancer . Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. , 518 : 147 – 161 .
  • Orr , M. , Bove , F. , Kaye , W. and Stone , M. 2002 . Elevated birth defects in racial or ethnic minority children of women living near hazardous waste sites . Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health , 205 : 19 – 27 .
  • Osman , K. , Akesson , A. , Berglund , M. , Bremme , K. , Schutz , A. , Ask , K. and Vahter , M. 2000 . Toxic and essential elements in placentas of Swedish women . Clin. Biochem. , 33 : 131 – 138 .
  • Osman , K. , Pawlas , K. , Schutz , A. , Gazdzik , M. , Sokal , J. A. and Vahter , M. 1999 . Lead exposure and hearing effects in children in Katowice, Poland . Environ. Res. , 80 : 1 – 8 .
  • Otto , D. A. and Fox , D. A. 1993 . Auditory and visual dysfunction following lead exposure . Neurotoxicology , 14 : 191 – 207 .
  • Pahwa , P. , McDuffie , H. H. , Dosman , J. A. , Robson , D. , McLaughlin , J. R. , Spinelli , J. J. and Fincham , S. 2003 . Exposure to animals and selected risk factors among Canadian farm residents with Hodgkin's disease, multiple myeloma, or soft tissue sarcoma . J. Occup. Environ. Med. , 45 : 857 – 868 .
  • Pang , D. , McNally , R. and Birch , J. M. 2003 . Parental smoking and childhood cancer: Results from the United Kingdom Childhood Cancer Study . Br. J. Cancer , 88 : 373 – 381 .
  • Pastore , L. M. , Hertz-Picciotto , I. and Beaumont , J. J. 1997 . Risk of stillbirth from occupational and residential exposures . Occup. Environ. Med. , 54 : 511 – 518 .
  • Patandin , S. , Koopman-Esseboom , C. , de Ridder , M. A. , Weisglas-Kuperus , N. and Sauer , P. J. 1998 . Effects of environmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins on birth size and growth in Dutch children . Pediatr. Res. , 44 : 538 – 545 .
  • Patandin , S. , Lanting , C. I. , Mulder , P. G. , Boersma , E. R. , Sauer , P. J. and Weisglas-Kuperus , N. 1999 . Effects of environmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins on cognitive abilities in Dutch children at 42 months of age . J. Pediatr. , 134 : 33 – 41 .
  • Pearce , M. S. and Parker , L. 2000 . Paternal employment in agriculture and childhood kidney cancer . Pediatr. Hematol. Oncol. , 17 : 223 – 230 .
  • Pearson , R. L. , Wachtel , H. and Ebi , K. L. 2000 . Distance-weighted traffic density in proximity to a home is a risk factor for leukemia and other childhood cancers . J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. , 50 : 175 – 180 .
  • Pereira , L. A. , Loomis , D. , Conceicao , G. M. , Braga , A. L. , Arcas , R. M. , Kishi , H. S. , Singer , J. M. , Bohm , G. M. and Saldiva , P. H. 1998 . Association between air pollution and intrauterine mortality in Sao Paulo, Brazil . Environ. Health Perspect. , 106 : 325 – 329 .
  • Perera , F. P. , Illman , S. M. , Kinney , P. L. , Whyatt , R. M. , Kelvin , E. A. , Shepard , P. , Evans , D. , Fullilove , M. , Ford , J. , Miller , R. L. , Meyer , I. H. and Rauh , V. A. 2002 . The challenge of preventing environmentally related disease in young children: Community-based research in New York City . Environ. Health Perspect. , 110 : 197 – 204 .
  • Perera , F. P. , Rauh , V. , Whyatt , R. M. , Tsai , W. Y. , Bernert , J. T. , Tu , Y. H. , Andrews , H. , Ramirez , J. , Qu , L. and Tang , D. 2004 . Molecular evidence of an interaction between prenatal environmental exposures and birth outcomes in a multiethnic population . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 626 – 630 .
  • Perera , F. P. , Rauh , V. , Whyatt , R. M. , Tsai , W. Y. , Tang , D. , Diaz , D. , Hoepner , L. , Barr , D. , Tu , Y. H. , Camann , D. and Kinney , P. 2006 . Effect of prenatal exposure to airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on neurodevelopment in the first 3 years of life among inner-city children . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 1287 – 1292 .
  • Pesatori , A. C. , Consonni , D. , Tironi , A. , Zocchetti , C. , Fini , A. and Bertazzi , P. A. 1993 . Cancer in a young population in a dioxin-contaminated area . Int. J. Epidemiol. , 22 : 1010 – 1013 .
  • Petrelli , G. , Fig`a-Talamanca , I. , Lauria , L. and Mantovani , A. 2003 . Spontaneous abortion in spouses of greenhouse workers exposed to pesticides . Environ. Health Prev. Med. , 8 : 77 – 81 .
  • Petrelli , G. and Figa-Talamanca , I. 2001 . Reduction in fertility in male greenhouse workers exposed to pesticides . Eur. J. Epidemiol. , 17 : 675 – 677 .
  • Petrelli , G. , Figa-Talamanca , I. , Tropeano , R. , Tangucci , M. , Cini , C. , Aquilani , S. , Gasperini , L. and Meli , P. 2000 . Reproductive male-mediated risk: Spontaneous abortion among wives of pesticide applicators . Eur. J. Epidemiol. , 16 : 391 – 393 .
  • Petridou , E. and Dessypris , N. 2000 . Maternal pesticide exposure and childhood leukemia . Epidemiology , 11 : 230
  • Pichini , S. , Garcia-Algar , O. , Munoz , L. , Vall , O. , Pacifici , R. , Figueroa , C. , Pascual , J. A. , Diaz , D. and Sunyer , J. 2003 . Assessment of chronic exposure to cigarette smoke and its change during pregnancy by segmental analysis of maternal hair nicotine . J. Expos. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. , 13 : 144 – 151 .
  • Pierik , F. H. , Burdorf , A. , Deddens , J. A. , Juttmann , R. E. and Weber , R. F. 2004 . Maternal and paternal risk factors for cryptorchidism and hypospadias: A case-control study in newborn boys . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 1570 – 1576 .
  • Pinkerton , K. E. and Joad , J. P. 2000 . The mammalian respiratory system and critical windows of exposure for children's health . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 ( Suppl. 3 ) : 457 – 462 .
  • Pirkle , J. L. , Bernert , J. T. , Caudill , S. P. , Sosnoff , C. S. and Pechacek , T. F. 2006 . Trends in the exposure of nonsmokers in the U.S. population to secondhand smoke: 1988–2002 . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 853 – 858 .
  • Plenge-Bonig , A. and Karmaus , W. 1999 . Exposure to toluene in the printing industry is associated with subfecundity in women but not in men . Occup. Environ. Med. , 56 : 443 – 448 .
  • Pocock , S. J. , Smith , M. and Baghurst , P. 1994 . Environmental lead and children's intelligence: A systematic review of the epidemiological evidence . Br. Med. J. , 309 : 1189 – 1197 .
  • Pogoda , J. M. and Preston-Martin , S. 1997 . Household pesticides and risk of pediatric brain tumors . Environ. Health Perspect. , 105 : 1214 – 1220 .
  • Public Health Agency of Canada. 2005. Preterm birth. Located http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/rhs-ssg/factshts/pterm_e.html
  • Raaschou-Nielsen , O. , Hertel , O. , Thomsen , B. L. and Olsen , J. H. 2001 . Air pollution from traffic at the residence of children with cancer . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 153 : 433 – 443 .
  • Raaschou-Nielsen , O. and Reynolds , P. 2006 . Air pollution and childhood cancer: A review of the epidemiological literature . Int. J. Cancer , 118 : 2920 – 2929 .
  • Rais-Bahrami , K. , Nunez , S. , Revenis , M. E. , Luban , N. L. and Short , B. L. 2004 . Follow-up study of adolescents exposed to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) as neonates on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) support . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 1339 – 1340 .
  • Regidor , E. , Ronda , E. , Garcia , A. M. and Dominguez , V. 2004 . Paternal exposure to agricultural pesticides and cause specific fetal death . Occup. Environ. Med. , 61 : 334 – 339 .
  • Restrepo , M. , Munoz , N. , Day , N. , Parra , J. E. , Hernandez , C. , Blettner , M. and Giraldo , A. 1990a . Birth defects among children born to a population occupationally exposed to pesticides in Colombia . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 16 : 239 – 246 .
  • Restrepo , M. , Munoz , N. , Day , N. E. , Parra , J. E. , de Romero , L. and Nguyen-Dinh , X. 1990b . Prevalence of adverse reproductive outcomes in a population occupationally exposed to pesticides in Colombia . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 16 : 232 – 238 .
  • Reynolds , P. , Von Behren , J. , Gunier , R. , Goldberg , D. E. and Hertz , A. 2005a . Agricultural pesticides and lymphoproliferative childhood cancer in California . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 31 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 46 – 54 . discussion 5–7
  • Reynolds , P. , Von Behren , J. , Gunier , R. B. , Goldberg , D. E. , Harnly , M. and Hertz , A. 2005b . Agricultural pesticide use and childhood cancer in California . Epidemiology , 16 : 93 – 100 .
  • Reynolds , P. , Von Behren , J. , Gunier , R. B. , Goldberg , D. E. and Hertz , A. 2004 . Residential exposure to traffic in California and childhood cancer . Epidemiology , 15 : 6 – 12 .
  • Reynolds , P. , Von Behren , J. , Gunier , R. B. , Goldberg , D. E. , Hertz , A. and Harnly , M. E. 2002a . Childhood cancer and agricultural pesticide use: an ecologic study in california . Environ. Health Perspect. , 110 : 319 – 324 .
  • Reynolds , P. , Von Behren , J. , Gunier , R. B. , Goldberg , D. E. , Hertz , A. and Smith , D. 2002b . Traffic patterns and childhood cancer incidence rates in California, United States . Cancer Causes Control , 13 : 665 – 673 .
  • Reynolds , P. , Von Behren , J. , Gunier , R. B. , Goldberg , D. E. , Hertz , A. and Smith , D. F. 2003 . Childhood cancer incidence rates and hazardous air pollutants in California: an exploratory analysis . Environ. Health Perspect. , 111 : 663 – 668 .
  • Ribas-Fito , N. , Cardo , E. , Sala , M. , Eulalia de Muga , M. , Mazon , C. , Verdu , A. , Kogevinas , M. , Grimalt , J. O. and Sunyer , J. 2003 . Breastfeeding, exposure to organochlorine compounds, and neurodevelopment in infants . Pediatrics , 111 : e580 – e585 .
  • Ribas-Fito , N. , Sala , M. , Cardo , E. , Mazon , C. , De Muga , M. E. , Verdu , A. , Marco , E. , Grimalt , J. O. and Sunyer , J. 2002 . Association of hexachlorobenzene and other organochlorine compounds with anthropometric measures at birth . Pediatr. Res. , 52 : 163 – 167 .
  • Ribas-Fito , N. , Sala , M. , Kogevinas , M. and Sunyer , J. 2001 . Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and neurological development in children: A systematic review . J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health , 55 : 537 – 546 .
  • Ris , M. D. , Dietrich , K. N. , Succop , P. A. , Berger , O. G. and Bornschein , R. L. 2004 . Early exposure to lead and neuropsychological outcome in adolescence . J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. , 10 : 261 – 270 .
  • Ritter , W. F. 1990 . Pesticide contamination of ground water in the United States—A review . J. Environ. Sci. Health , 25 : 1 – 29 .
  • Ritz , B. , Yu , F. , Fruin , S. , Chapa , G. , Shaw , G. M. and Harris , J. A. 2002 . Ambient air pollution and risk of birth defects in Southern California . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 155 : 17 – 25 .
  • Roan , C. C. , Matanoski , G. E. , McIlnay , C. Q. , Olds , K. L. , Pylant , F. , Trout , J. R. , Wheeler , P. and Morgan , D. P. 1984 . Spontaneous abortions, stillbirths, and birth defects in families of agricultural pilots . Arch. Environ. Health , 39 : 56 – 60 .
  • Robin , L. F. , Less , P. S. , Winget , M. , Steinhoff , M. , Moulton , L. H. , Santosham , M. and Correa , A. 1996 . Wood-burning stoves and lower respiratory illnesses in Navajo children . Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. , 15 : 859 – 865 .
  • Rodvall , Y. , Dich , J. and Wiklund , K. 2003 . Cancer risk in offspring of male pesticide applicators in agriculture in Sweden . Occup. Environ. Med. , 60 : 798 – 801 .
  • Rogan , W. J. and Gladen , B. C. 1991 . PCBs, DDE, and child development at 18 and 24 months . Ann. Epidemiol. , 1 : 407 – 413 .
  • Rogan , W. J. , Gladen , B. C. , Hung , K. L. , Koong , S. L. , Shih , L. Y. , Taylor , J. S. , Wu , Y. C. , Yang , D. , Ragan , N. B. and Hsu , C. C. 1988 . Congenital poisoning by polychlorinated biphenyls and their contaminants in Taiwan . Science , 241 : 334 – 336 .
  • Rogan , W. J. , Gladen , B. C. , McKinney , J. D. , Carreras , N. , Hardy , P. , Thullen , J. , Tingelstad , J. and Tully , M. 1987 . Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethene (DDE) in human milk: Effects on growth, morbidity, and duration of lactation . Am. J. Public Health , 77 : 1294 – 1297 .
  • Rogan , W. J. , Gladen , B. C. , McKinney , J. D. , Carreras , N. , Hardy , P. , Thullen , J. , Tinglestad , J. and Tully , M. 1986 . Neonatal effects of transplacental exposure to PCBs and DDE . J. Pediatr. , 109 : 335 – 341 .
  • Romieu , I. , Samet , J. M. , Smith , K. R. and Bruce , N. 2002 . Outdoor air pollution and acute respiratory infections among children in developing countries . J. Occup. Environ. Med. , 44 : 640 – 649 .
  • Rothenberg , S. J. , Poblano , A. and Garza-Morales , S. 1994 . Prenatal and perinatal low level lead exposure alters brainstem auditory evoked responses in infants . Neurotoxicology , 15 : 695 – 699 .
  • Rothenberg , S. J. , Poblano , A. and Schnaas , L. 2000 . Brainstem auditory evoked response at five years and prenatal and postnatal blood lead . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 22 : 503 – 510 .
  • Rothenberg , S. J. and Rothenberg , J. C. 2005 . Testing the dose-response specification in epidemiology: Public health and policy consequences for lead . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 1190 – 1195 .
  • Rowland , A. S. , Baird , D. D. , Shore , D. L. , Darden , B. and Wilcox , A. J. 1996 . Ethylene oxide exposure may increase the risk of spontaneous abortion, preterm birth, and postterm birth . Epidemiology , 7 : 363 – 368 .
  • Ruckart , P. Z. , Kakolewski , K. , Bove , F. J. and Kaye , W. E. 2004 . Long-term neurobehavioral health effects of methyl parathion exposure in children in Mississippi and Ohio . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 46 – 51 .
  • Rull , R. P. , Ritz , B. and Shaw , G. M. 2006 . Neural tube defects and maternal residential proximity to agricultural pesticide applications . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 163 : 743 – 753 .
  • Rumchev , K. , Spickett , J. , Bulsara , M. , Phillips , M. and Stick , S. 2004 . Association of domestic exposure to volatile organic compounds with asthma in young children . Thorax , 59 : 746 – 751 .
  • Rupa , D. S. , Reddy , P. P. and Reddi , O. S. 1991 . Reproductive performance in population exposed to pesticides in cotton fields in India . Environ. Res. , 55 : 123 – 128 .
  • Rylander , L. , Stromberg , U. , Dyremark , E. , Ostman , C. , Nilsson-Ehle , P. and Hagmar , L. 1998 . Polychlorinated biphenyls in blood plasma among Swedish female fish consumers in relation to low birth weight . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 147 : 493 – 502 .
  • Rylander , L. , Stromberg , U. and Hagmar , L. 2000 . Lowered birth weight among infants born to women with a high intake of fish contaminated with persistent organochlorine compounds . Chemosphere , 40 : 1255 – 1262 .
  • Rylander , L. , Stromberg , U. and Hagmar , L. 2007 . Weight and height at 4 and 7 years of age in children born to mothers with a high intake of fish contaminated with persistent organochlorine pollutants . Chemosphere , 67 : 498 – 504 .
  • Sagiv , S. K. , Mendola , P. , Loomis , D. , Herring , A. H. , Neas , L. M. , Savitz , D. A. and Poole , C. 2005 . A time-series analysis of air pollution and preterm birth in Pennsylvania, 1997–2001 . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 602 – 606 .
  • Saint-Amour , D. , Roy , M. S. , Bastien , C. , Ayotte , P. , Dewailly , E. , Despres , C. , Gingras , S. and Muckle , G. 2006 . Alterations of visual evoked potentials in preschool Inuit children exposed to methylmercury and polychlorinated biphenyls from a marine diet . Neurotoxicology , 27 : 567 – 78 .
  • Salam , M. T. , Li , Y. F. , Langholz , B. and Gilliland , F. D. 2004 . Early-life environmental risk factors for asthma: findings from the Children's Health Study . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 760 – 765 .
  • Salameh , P. R. , Baldi , I. , Brochard , P. , Raherison , C. , Abi Saleh , B. and Salamon , R. 2003 . Respiratory symptoms in children and exposure to pesticides . Eur. Respir. J. , 22 : 507 – 12 .
  • Salazar-Garcia , F. , Gallardo-Diaz , E. , Ceron-Mireles , P. , Loomis , D. and Borja-Aburto , V. H. 2004 . Reproductive effects of occupational DDT exposure among male malaria control workers . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 542 – 547 .
  • Sallmen , M. , Baird , D. D. , Hoppin , J. A. , Blair , A. and Sandler , D. P. 2006 . Fertility and exposure to solvents among families in the Agricultural Health Study . Occup. Environ. Med. , 63 : 469 – 75 .
  • Sallmen , M. , Liesivuori , J. , Taskinen , H. , Lindbohm , M. L. , Anttila , A. , Aalto , L. and Hemminki , K. 2003 . Time to pregnancy among the wives of Finnish greenhouse workers . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 29 : 85 – 93 .
  • Sallmen , M. , Lindbohm , M. L. , Anttila , A. , Kyyronen , P. , Taskinen , H. , Nykyri , E. and Hemminki , K. 1998 . Time to pregnancy among the wives of men exposed to organic solvents . Occup. Environ. Med. , 55 : 24 – 30 .
  • Salpietro , C. D. , Gangemi , S. , Minciullo , P. L. , Briuglia , S. , Merlino , M. V. , Stelitano , A. , Cristani , M. , Trombetta , D. and Saija , A. 2002 . Cadmium concentration in maternal and cord blood and infant birth weight: a study on healthy nonsmoking women . J. Perinat. Med. , 30 : 395 – 399 .
  • Savitz , D. A. , Arbuckle , T. , Kaczor , D. and Curtis , K. M. 1997a . Male pesticide exposure and pregnancy outcome . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 146 : 1025 – 1036 .
  • Savitz , D. A. , Brett , K. M. , Dole , N. and Tse , C. K. 1997b . Male and female occupation in relation to miscarriage and preterm delivery in central North Carolina . Ann. Epidemiol. , 7 : 509 – 516 .
  • Savitz , D. A. and Feingold , L. 1989 . Association of childhood cancer with residential traffic density . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 15 : 360 – 363 .
  • Savitz , D. A. , Whelan , E. A. and Kleckner , R. C. 1989a . Effect of parents’ occupational exposures on risk of stillbirth, preterm delivery, and small-for-gestational-age infants . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 129 : 1201 – 1218 .
  • Savitz , D. A. , Whelan , E. A. and Kleckner , R. C. 1989b . Self-reported exposure to pesticides and radiation related to pregnancy outcome—Results from National Natality and Fetal Mortality Surveys . Public Health Rep. , 104 : 473 – 477 .
  • Schantz , S. L. 1996 . Developmental neurotoxicity of PCBs in humans: what do we know and where do we go from here? . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 18 : 217 – 27 .
  • Schantz , S. L. , Widholm , J. J. and Rice , D. C. 2003 . Effects of PCB exposure on neuropsychological function in children . Environ. Health Perspect. , 111 : 357 – 376 .
  • Scheele , J. , Teufel , M. and Niessen , K. H. 1992 . Chlorinated hydrocarbons in the bone marrow of children: studies on their association with leukaemia . Eur. J. Pediatr. , 151 : 802 – 805 .
  • Schenker , M. B. , Gold , E. B. , Beaumont , J. J. , Eskenazi , B. , Hammond , S. K. , Lasley , B. L. , McCurdy , S. A. , Samuels , S. J. , Saiki , C. L. and Swan , S. H. 1995 . Association of spontaneous abortion and other reproductive effects with work in the semiconductor industry . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 28 : 639 – 659 .
  • Schnaas , L. , Rothenberg , S. J. , Flores , M. F. , Martinez , S. , Hernandez , C. , Osorio , E. , Velasco , S. R. and Perroni , E. 2006 . Reduced intellectual development in children with prenatal lead exposure . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 791 – 797 .
  • Schnaas , L. , Rothenberg , S. J. , Perroni , E. , Martinez , S. , Hernandez , C. and Hernandez , R. M. 2000 . Temporal pattern in the effect of postnatal blood lead level on intellectual development of young children . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 22 : 805 – 810 .
  • Schneider , D. , Freeman , N. C. and McGarvey , P. 2004 . Asthma and respiratory dysfunction among urban, primarily Hispanic school children . Arch. Environ. Health , 59 : 4 – 13 .
  • Schnorr , T. M. , Lawson , C. C. , Whelan , E. A. , Dankovic , D. A. , Deddens , J. A. , Piacitelli , L. A. , Reefhuis , J. , Sweeney , M. H. , Connally , L. B. and Fingerhut , M. A. 2001 . Spontaneous abortion, sex ratio, and paternal occupational exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin . Environ. Health Perspect. , 109 : 1127 – 1132 .
  • Schonfelder , G. , Wittfoht , W. , Hopp , H. , Talsness , C. E. , Paul , M. and Chahoud , I. 2002 . Parent bisphenol A accumulation in the human maternal-fetal-placental unit . Environ. Health Perspect. , 110 : A703 – 707 .
  • Schreinemachers , D. M. 2003 . Birth malformations and other adverse perinatal outcomes in four U.S. Wheat-producing states . Environ. Health Perspect. , 111 : 1259 – 1264 .
  • Schuz , J. , Kaletsch , U. , Kaatsch , P. , Meinert , R. and Michaelis , J. 2001 . Risk factors for pediatric tumors of the central nervous system: results from a German population-based case-control study . Med. Pediatr. Oncol , 36 : 274 – 282 .
  • Schuz , J. , Kaletsch , U. , Meinert , R. , Kaatsch , P. and Michaelis , J. 2000 . Risk of childhood leukemia and parental self-reported occupational exposure to chemicals, dusts, and fumes: results from pooled analyses of German population-based case-control studies . Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. , 9 : 835 – 838 .
  • Schuz , J. , Kaletsch , U. , Meinert , R. , Kaatsch , P. and Michaelis , J. 2001 . High-birth weight and other risk factors for Wilms tumour: Results of a population-based case-control study . Eur. J. Pediatr. , 160 : 333 – 338 .
  • Schwartz , D. A. and LoGerfo , J. P. 1988 . Congenital limb reduction defects in the agricultural setting . Am. J. Public Health , 78 : 654 – 658 .
  • Schwartz , J. 1993 . Beyond LOEL's, p values, and vote counting: Methods for looking at the shapes and strengths of associations . Neurotoxicology , 14 : 237 – 246 .
  • Schwartz , J. 1994 . Low-level lead exposure and children's IQ: A meta-analysis and search for a threshold . Environ. Res. , 65 : 42 – 55 .
  • Schwartz , J. 2004 . Air pollution and children's health . Pediatrics , 113 : 1037 – 1043 .
  • Schwartz , J. , Angle , C. and Pitcher , H. 1986 . Relationship between childhood blood lead levels and stature . Pediatrics , 77 : 281 – 288 .
  • Schwartz , J. and Otto , D. 1987 . Blood lead, hearing thresholds, and neurobehavioral development in children and youth . Arch. Environ. Health , 42 : 153 – 160 .
  • Schwartz , J. and Otto , D. 1991 . Lead and minor hearing impairment . Arch. Environ. Health , 46 : 300 – 305 .
  • Seidler , A. , Raum , E. , Arabin , B. , Hellenbrand , W. , Walter , U. and Schwartz , F. W. 1999 . Maternal occupational exposure to chemical substances and the risk of infants small-for-gestational-age . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 36 : 213 – 222 .
  • Selevan , S. G. , Kimmel , C. A. and Mendola , P. 2000 . Identifying critical windows of exposure for children's health . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 ( Suppl 3 ) : 451 – 455 .
  • Selevan , S. G. , Rice , D. C. , Hogan , K. A. , Euling , S. Y. , Pfahles-Hutchens , A. and Bethel , J. 2003 . Blood lead concentration and delayed puberty in girls . N. Engl. J. Med. , 348 : 1527 – 1536 .
  • Sever , L. E. , Arbuckle , T. E. and Sweeney , A. 1997 . Reproductive and developmental effects of occupational pesticide exposure: The epidemiologic evidence . Occup. Med. , 12 : 305 – 325 .
  • Shapiro , G. G. and Stout , J. W. 2002 . Childhood asthma in the United States: Urban issues . Pediatr. Pulmonol. , 33 : 47 – 55 .
  • Sharpe , C. R. , Franco , E. L. , de Camargo , B. , Lopes , L. F. , Barreto , J. H. , Johnsson , R. R. and Mauad , M. A. 1995 . Parental exposures to pesticides and risk of Wilms’ tumor in Brazil . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 141 : 210 – 217 .
  • Shaw , G. M. , Nelson , V. , Iovannisci , D. M. , Finnell , R. H. and Lammer , E. J. 2003a . Maternal occupational chemical exposures and biotransformation genotypes as risk factors for selected congenital anomalies . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 157 : 475 – 484 .
  • Shaw , G. M. , Ranatunga , D. , Quach , T. , Neri , E. , Correa , A. and Neutra , R. R. 2003b . Trihalomethane exposures from municipal water supplies and selected congenital malformations . Epidemiology , 14 : 191 – 199 .
  • Shaw , G. M. , Wasserman , C. R. , O'Malley , C. D. , Nelson , V. and Jackson , R. J. 1999 . Maternal pesticide exposure from multiple sources and selected congenital anomalies . Epidemiology , 10 : 60 – 66 .
  • Shen , X. M. , Yan , C. H. , Guo , D. , Wu , S. M. , Li , R. Q. , Huang , H. , Ao , L. M. , Zhou , J. D. , Hong , Z. Y. , Xu , J. D. , Jin , X. M. and Tang , J. M. 1998 . Low-level prenatal lead exposure and neurobehavioral development of children in the first year of life: A prospective study in Shanghai . Environ. Res. , 79 : 1 – 8 .
  • Shi , L. and Chia , S. E. 2001 . A review of studies on maternal occupational exposures and birth defects, and the limitations associated with these studies . Occup. Med. , 51 : 230 – 244 .
  • Shiau , C. Y. , Wang , J. D. and Chen , P. C. 2004 . Decreased fecundity among male lead workers . Occup. Environ. Med. , 61 : 915 – 923 .
  • Shima , M. and Adachi , M. 2000 . Effect of outdoor and indoor nitrogen dioxide on respiratory symptoms in schoolchildren . Int. J. Epidemiol. , 29 : 862 – 870 .
  • Shima , M. , Nitta , Y. and Adachi , M. 2003 . Traffic-related air pollution and respiratory symptoms in children living along trunk roads in Chiba Prefecture, Japan . J. Epidemiol. , 13 : 108 – 119 .
  • Shima , M. , Nitta , Y. , Ando , M. and Adachi , M. 2002 . Effects of air pollution on the prevalence and incidence of asthma in children . Arch. Environ. Health , 57 : 529 – 535 .
  • Shu , X. O. , Gao , Y. T. , Brinton , L. A. , Linet , M. S. , Tu , J. T. , Zheng , W. and Fraumeni , J. F. 1988 . A population-based case-control study of childhood leukemia in Shanghai . Cancer , 62 : 635 – 644 .
  • Shu , X. O. , Nesbit , M. E. , Buckley , J. D. , Krailo , M. D. and Robinson , L. L. 1995 . An exploratory analysis of risk factors for childhood malignant germ- cell tumors: Report from the Childrens Cancer Group (Canada, United States) . Cancer Causes Control , 6 : 187 – 198 .
  • Shu , X. O. , Perentesis , J. P. , Wen , W. , Buckley , J. D. , Boyle , E. , Ross , J. A. and Robison , L. L. 2004 . Parental exposure to medications and hydrocarbons and ras mutations in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: A report from the Children's Oncology Group . Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. , 13 : 1230 – 1235 .
  • Shu , X. O. , Stewart , P. , Wen , W. Q. , Han , D. , Potter , J. D. , Buckley , J. D. , Heineman , E. and Robison , L. L. 1999 . Parental occupational exposure to hydrocarbons and risk of acute lymphocytic leukemia in offspring . Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. , 8 : 783 – 791 .
  • Shukla , R. , Bornschein , R. L. , Dietrich , K. N. , Buncher , C. R. , Berger , O. G. , Hammond , P. B. and Succop , P. A. 1989 . Fetal and infant lead exposure: Effects on growth in stature . Pediatrics , 84 : 604 – 612 .
  • Shukla , R. , Dietrich , K. N. , Bornschein , R. L. , Berger , O. and Hammond , P. B. 1991 . Lead exposure and growth in the early preschool child: A follow-up report from the Cincinnati Lead Study . Pediatrics , 88 : 886 – 892 .
  • Silva , P. A. , Hughes , P. , Williams , S. and Faed , J. M. 1988 . Blood lead, intelligence, reading attainment, and behaviour in eleven year old children in Dunedin, New Zealand . J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry , 29 : 43 – 52 .
  • Small , C. M. , Cheslack-Postava , K. , Terrell , M. , Blanck , H. M. , Tolbert , P. , Rubin , C. , Henderson , A. and Marcus , M. 2007 . Risk of spontaneous abortion among women exposed to polybrominated biphenyls . Environ. Res. , [Epub Ahead of Print]
  • Smith , A. H. , Marshall , G. , Yuan , Y. , Ferreccio , C. , Liaw , J. , von Ehrenstein , O. , Steinmaus , C. , Bates , M. N. and Selvin , S. 2006 . Increased mortality from lung cancer and bronchiectasis in young adults after exposure to arsenic in utero and in early childhood . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 1293 – 1296 .
  • Sonnenfeld , N. , Hertz-Picciotto , I. and Kaye , W. E. 2001 . Tetrachloroethylene in drinking water and birth outcomes at the US Marine Corps Base at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 154 : 902 – 908 .
  • Sosniak , W. A. , Kaye , W. E. and Gomez , T. M. 1994 . Data linkage to explore the risk of low birthweight associated with maternal proximity to hazardous waste sites from the National Priorities List . Arch. Environ. Health , 49 : 251 – 255 .
  • Spinelli , A. , Figa-Talamanca , I. and Osborn , J. 1997 . Time to pregnancy and occupation in a group of Italian women . Int. J. Epidemiol. , 26 : 601 – 609 .
  • Staessen , J. A. , Nawrot , T. , Hond , E. D. , Thijs , L. , Fagard , R. , Hoppenbrouwers , K. , Koppen , G. , Nelen , V. , Schoeters , G. , Vanderschueren , D. , Van Hecke , E. , Verschaeve , L. , Vlietinck , R. and Roels , H. A. 2001 . Renal function, cytogenetic measurements, and sexual development in adolescents in relation to environmental pollutants: A feasibility study of biomarkers . Lancet , 357 : 1660 – 1669 .
  • Steffen , C. , Auclerc , M. F. , Auvrignon , A. , Baruchel , A. , Kebaili , K. , Lambilliotte , A. , Leverger , G. , Sommelet , D. , Vilmer , E. , Hemon , D. and Clavel , J. 2004 . Acute childhood leukaemia and environmental exposure to potential sources of benzene and other hydrocarbons; A case-control study . Occup. Environ. Med. , 61 : 773 – 778 .
  • Steliarova-Foucher , E. , Stiller , C. , Kaatsch , P. , Berrino , F. , Coebergh , J. W. , Lacour , B. and Parkin , M. 2004 . Geographical patterns and time trends of cancer incidence and survival among children and adolescents in Europe since the 1970s (the ACCISproject): An epidemiological study . Lancet , 364 : 2097 – 2105 .
  • Steuerwald , U. , Weihe , P. , Jorgensen , P. J. , Bjerve , K. , Brock , J. , Heinzow , B. , Budtz-Jorgensen , E. and Grandjean , P. 2000 . Maternal seafood diet, methylmercury exposure, and neonatal neurologic function . J. Pediatr. , 136 : 599 – 605 .
  • Stewart , P. , Reihman , J. , Lonky , E. , Darvill , T. and Pagano , J. 2000 . Prenatal PCB exposure and neonatal behavioral assessment scale (NBAS) performance . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 22 : 21 – 29 .
  • Stewart , P. W. , Reihman , J. , Lonky , E. I. , Darvill , T. J. and Pagano , J. 2003 . Cognitive development in preschool children prenatally exposed to PCBs and MeHg . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 25 : 11 – 22 .
  • Steyn , K. , de Wet , T. , Saloojee , Y. , Nel , H. and Yach , D. 2006 . The influence of maternal cigarette smoking, snuff use and passive smoking on pregnancy outcomes: The Birth To Ten Study . Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. , 20 : 90 – 99 .
  • Stiles , K. M. and Bellinger , D. C. 1993 . Neuropsychological correlates of low-level lead exposure in school-age children: a prospective study . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 15 : 27 – 35 .
  • Stockbauer , J. W. , Hoffman , R. E. , Schramm , W. F. and Edmonds , L. D. 1988 . Reproductive outcomes of mothers with potential exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 128 : 410 – 419 .
  • Stokes , L. , Letz , R. , Gerr , F. , Kolczak , M. , McNeill , F. E. , Chettle , D. R. and Kaye , W. E. 1998 . Neurotoxicity in young adults 20 years after childhood exposure to lead: The Bunker Hill experience . Occup. Environ. Med. , 55 : 507 – 516 .
  • Storgaard , L. , Bonde , J. P. and Olsen , J. 2006 . Male reproductive disorders in humans and prenatal indicators of estrogen exposure. A review of published epidemiological studies . Reprod. Toxicol. , 21 : 4 – 15 .
  • Strachan , D. P. and Cook , D. G. 1998a . Parental smoking, middle ear disease and adenotonsillectomy in children . Thorax , 53 : 50 – 56 .
  • Strachan , D. P. and Cook , D. G. 1998b . Health effects of passive smoking. 6. Parental smoking and childhood asthma: longitudinal and case-control studies . Thorax , 53 : 204 – 212 .
  • Suarez , L. , Gilani , Z. , Felkner , M. , Brender , J. , Henry , J. and Hendricks , K. 2005 . Exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and risk of neural-tube defects in a Mexican American population . Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health , 11 : 233 – 237 .
  • Sugiura-Ogasawara , M. , Ozaki , Y. , Sonta , S. , Makino , T. and Suzumori , K. 2003 . PCBs, hexachlorobenzene and DDE are not associated with recurrent miscarriage . Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. , 50 : 485 – 489 .
  • Sugiura-Ogasawara , M. , Ozaki , Y. , Sonta , S. , Makino , T. and Suzumori , K. 2005 . Exposure to bisphenol A is associated with recurrent miscarriage . Hum. Reprod. , 20 : 2325 – 2329 .
  • Suh , H. H. , Bahadori , T. , Vallarino , J. and Spengler , J. D. 2000 . Criteria air pollutants and toxic air pollutants . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 ( Suppl. 4 ) : 625 – 633 .
  • Sunyer , J. , Torrent , M. , Munoz-Ortiz , L. , Ribas-Fito , N. , Carrizo , D. , Grimalt , J. , Anto , J. M. and Cullinan , P. 2005 . Prenatal dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and asthma in children . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 1787 – 90 .
  • Swan , S. H. , Beaumont , J. J. , Hammond , S. K. , VonBehren , J. , Green , R. S. , Hallock , M. F. , Woskie , S. R. , Hines , C. J. and Schenker , M. B. 1995 . Historical cohort study of spontaneous abortion among fabrication workers in the Semiconductor Health Study: Agent-level analysis . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 28 : 751 – 769 .
  • Swan , S. H. , Main , K. M. , Liu , F. , Stewart , S. L. , Kruse , R. L. , Calafat , A. M. , Mao , C. S. , Redmon , J. B. , Ternand , C. L. , Sullivan , S. and Teague , J. L. 2005 . Decrease in anogenital distance among male infants with prenatal phthalate exposure . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 1056 – 1061 .
  • Sweeney , M. H. and Mocarelli , P. 2000 . Human health effects after exposure to 2,3,7,8-TCDD . Food Addit. Contam. , 17 : 303 – 316 .
  • Taha , T. E. and Gray , R. H. 1993 . Agricultural pesticide exposure and perinatal mortality in central Sudan . Bull World Health Organ , 71 : 317 – 321 .
  • Tajimi , M. , Uehara , R. , Watanabe , M. , Oki , I. , Ojima , T. and Nakamura , Y. 2005 . Relationship of PCDD/F and Co-PCB concentrations in breast milk with infant birthweights in Tokyo, Japan . Chemosphere , 61 : 383 – 388 .
  • Takser , L. , Mergler , D. , Hellier , G. , Sahuquillo , J. and Huel , G. 2003 . Manganese, monoamine metabolite levels at birth, and child psychomotor development . Neurotoxicology , 24 : 667 – 674 .
  • Tango , T. , Fujita , T. , Tanihata , T. , Minowa , M. , Doi , Y. , Kato , N. , Kunikane , S. , Uchiyama , I. , Tanaka , M. and Uehata , T. 2004 . Risk of adverse reproductive outcomes associated with proximity to municipal solid waste incinerators with high dioxin emission levels in Japan . J. Epidemiol. , 14 : 83 – 93 .
  • Taskinen , H. , Anttila , A. , Lindbohm , M. L. , Sallmen , M. and Hemminki , K. 1989 . Spontaneous abortions and congenital malformations among the wives of men occupationally exposed to organic solvents . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 15 : 345 – 352 .
  • Taskinen , H. , Kyyronen , P. , Hemminki , K. , Hoikkala , M. , Lajunen , K. and Lindbohm , M. L. 1994 . Laboratory work and pregnancy outcome . J. Occup. Med. , 36 : 311 – 319 .
  • Taskinen , H. K. , Kyyronen , P. , Sallmen , M. , Virtanen , S. V. , Liukkonen , T. A. , Huida , O. , Lindbohm , M. L. and Anttila , A. 1999 . Reduced fertility among female wood workers exposed to formaldehyde . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 36 : 206 – 212 .
  • Taub , J. W. and Ge , Y. 2004 . The prenatal origin of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia . Leuk. Lymphoma , 45 : 19 – 25 .
  • Taylor , P. R. , Stelma , J. M. and Lawrence , C. E. 1989 . The relation of polychlorinated biphenyls to birth weight and gestational age in the offspring of occupationally exposed mothers . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 129 : 395 – 406 .
  • Tellez-Rojo , M. M. , Bellinger , D. C. , Arroyo-Quiroz , C. , Lamadrid-Figueroa , H. , Mercado-Garcia , A. , Schnaas-Arrieta , L. , Wright , R. O. , Hernandez-Avila , M. and Hu , H. 2006 . Longitudinal associations between blood lead concentrations lower than 10 microg/dl and neurobehavioral development in environmentally exposed children in Mexico City . Pediatrics , 118 : 323 – 330 .
  • Thacker , S. B. , Hoffman , D. A. , Smith , J. , Steinberg , K. and Zack , M. 1992 . Effect of low-level body burdens of lead on the mental development of children: Limitations of meta-analysis in a review of longitudinal data . Arch. Environ. Health , 47 : 336 – 346 .
  • Thatcher , R. W. , Lester , M. L. , McAlaster , R. and Horst , R. 1982 . Effects of low levels of cadmium and lead on cognitive functioning in children . Arch. Environ. Health , 37 : 159 – 166 .
  • Thomas , D. C. , Petitti , D. B. , Goldhaber , M. , Swan , S. H. , Rappaport , E. B. and Hertz-Picciotto , I. 1992 . Reproductive outcomes in relation to malathion spraying in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1981–1982 . Epidemiology , 3 : 32 – 39 .
  • Thonneau , P. , Abell , A. , Larsen , S. B. , Bonde , J. P. , Joffe , M. , Clavert , A. , Ducot , B. , Multigner , L. and Danscher , G. 1999 . Effects of pesticide exposure on time to pregnancy: results of a multicenter study in France and Denmark. ASCLEPIOS Study Group . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 150 : 157 – 163 .
  • Thorpe , N. and Shirmohammadi , A. 2005 . Herbicides and nitrates in groundwater of Maryland and childhood cancers: A geographic information systems approach . J. Environ. Sci. Health C Environ. Carcinogen. Ecotoxicol. Rev. , 23 : 261 – 278 .
  • Tikkanen , J. and Heinonen , O. P. 1991 . Maternal exposure to chemical and physical factors during pregnancy and cardiovascular malformations in the offspring . Teratology , 43 : 591 – 600 .
  • Tikkanen , J. and Heinonen , O. P. 1992a . Occupational risk factors for congenital heart disease . Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health , 64 : 59 – 64 .
  • Tikkanen , J. and Heinonen , O. P. 1992b . Risk factors for conal malformations of the heart . Eur. J. Epidemiol. , 8 : 48 – 57 .
  • Tilson , H. A. and Kodavanti , P. R. 1997 . Neurochemical effects of polychlorinated biphenyls: An overview and identification of research needs . Neurotoxicology , 18 : 727 – 743 .
  • Toft , G. , Hagmar , L. , Giwercman , A. and Bonde , J. P. 2004 . Epidemiological evidence on reproductive effects of persistent organochlorines in humans . Reprod. Toxicol. , 19 : 5 – 26 .
  • Toledano , M. B. , Nieuwenhuijsen , M. J. , Best , N. , Whitaker , H. , Hambly , P. , de Hoogh , C. , Fawell , J. , Jarup , L. and Elliott , P. 2005 . Relation of trihalomethane concentrations in public water supplies to stillbirth and birth weight in three water regions in England . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 225 – 232 .
  • Tong , S. , Baghurst , P. , McMichael , A. , Sawyer , M. and Mudge , J. 1996 . Lifetime exposure to environmental lead and children's intelligence at 11–13 years: The Port Pirie cohort study . Br. Med. J. , 312 : 1569 – 1575 .
  • Tong , S. , Baghurst , P. A. , Sawyer , M. G. , Burns , J. and McMichael , A. J. 1998 . Declining blood lead levels and changes in cognitive function during childhood: The Port Pirie Cohort Study . J. Am. Med. Assoc. , 280 : 1915 – 1919 .
  • Tong , S. and Colditz , P. 2004 . Air pollution and sudden infant death syndrome: A literature review . Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. , 18 : 327 – 335 .
  • Torchio , P. , Lepore , A. R. , Corrao , G. , Comba , P. , Settimi , L. , Belli , S. , Magnani , C. and di Orio , F. 1994 . Mortality study on a cohort of Italian licensed pesticide users . Sci. Total Environ. , 149 : 183 – 191 .
  • Torres-Arreola , L. , Berkowitz , G. , Torres-Sanchez , L. , Lopez-Cervantes , M. , Cebrian , M. E. , Uribe , M. and Lopez-Carrillo , L. 2003 . Preterm birth in relation to maternal organochlorine serum levels . Ann. Epidemiol. , 13 : 158 – 162 .
  • Torres-Sanchez , L. E. , Berkowitz , G. , Lopez-Carrillo , L. , Torres-Arreola , L. , Rios , C. and Lopez-Cervantes , M. 1999 . Intrauterine lead exposure and preterm birth . Environ. Res. , 81 : 297 – 301 .
  • Tryphonas , H. 1998 . The impact of PCBs and dioxins on children's health: Immunological considerations . Can. J. Public Health , 89 ( Suppl 1 ) : S49 – 57 .
  • Tsai , J. , Kaye , W. E. and Bove , F. J. 2006 . Wilms’ tumor and exposures to residential and occupational hazardous chemicals . Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health , 209 : 57 – 64 .
  • Tsai , S. S. , Yu , H. S. , Chang , C. C. , Chuang , H. Y. and Yang , C. Y. 2004 . Increased risk of preterm delivery in women residing near thermal power plants in Taiwan . Arch. Environ. Health , 59 : 478 – 483 .
  • Tsai , S. S. , Yu , H. S. , Liu , C. C. and Yang , C. Y. 2003 . Increased incidence of preterm delivery in mothers residing in an industrialized area in Taiwan . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 66 : 987 – 994 .
  • Tyshenko , M. , Benidickson , J. , Turner , M. C. , Craig , L. , Armstrong , V. , Harrison , J. and Krewski , D. 2006 . Regulatory and nonregulatory strategies for improving children's environmental health in Canada . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B , 10 : 143 – 156 .
  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2001. Women and smoking: a report of the Surgeon General. Located http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/sgr_2001/00_pdfs/chp3.pdf
  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services . 2003 . Child Health USA 2003 , Rockville, Maryland : U.S. Department of Health and Human Services .
  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2004. The health consequences of smoking: a report of the Surgeon General. Located http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/sgr_2004/index.htm
  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2006. The health consequences of involuntary exposure to tobacco smoke: a report of the Surgeon General. Located http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/secondhandsmoke/
  • U.S. Department of Health EaW . 1964 . Smoking and health. Report of the advisory committee to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service , Washington, DC : Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare . Public Health Service Publication No. 1103
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2001. Chemical testing and information home page. Located http://www.epa.gov/opptintr/chemtest/index.htm
  • United Nations Environment Programme. 2002. Global mercury assessment. Located http://www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/Report/final-report-download.htm
  • Valery , P. C. , McWhirter , W. , Sleigh , A. , Williams , G. and Bain , C. 2002 . Farm exposures, parental occupation, and risk of Ewing's sarcoma in Australia: A national case-control study . Cancer Causes Control , 13 : 263 – 270 .
  • van Steensel-Moll , H. A. , Valkenburg , H. A. and van Zanen , G. E. 1985 . Childhood leukemia and parental occupation. A register-based case- control study . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 121 : 216 – 224 .
  • van Wijngaarden , E. , Beck , C. , Shamlaye , C. F. , Cernichiari , E. , Davidson , P. W. , Myers , G. J. and Clarkson , T. W. 2006 . Benchmark concentrations for methyl mercury obtained from the 9-year follow-up of the Seychelles Child Development Study . Neurotoxicology , 27 : 702 – 709 .
  • van Wijngaarden , E. , Stewart , P. A. , Olshan , A. F. , Savitz , D. A. and Bunin , G. R. 2003 . Parental occupational exposure to pesticides and childhood brain cancer . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 157 : 989 – 997 .
  • Vartiainen , T. , Jaakkola , J. J. , Saarikoski , S. and Tuomisto , J. 1998 . . Birth weight and sex of children and the correlation to the body burden of PCDDs/PCDFs and PCBs of the mother . Environ. Health Perspect. , 106 : 61 – 66 .
  • Vasiliu , O. , Muttineni , J. and Karmaus , W. 2004 . In utero exposure to organochlorines and age at menarche . Hum. Reprod. , 19 : 1506 – 12 .
  • Venners , S. A. , Korrick , S. , Xu , X. , Chen , C. , Guang , W. , Huang , A. , Altshul , L. , Perry , M. , Fu , L. and Wang , X. 2005 . Preconception serum DDT and pregnancy loss: A prospective study using a biomarker of pregnancy . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 162 : 709 – 716 .
  • Verberk , M. M. , Willems , T. E. , Verplanke , A. J. and De Wolff , F. A. 1996 . Environmental lead and renal effects in children . Arch. Environ. Health , 51 : 83 – 87 .
  • Villeneuve , P. J. , Johnson , K. C. , Mao , Y. and Hanley , A. J. 2004 . Environmental tobacco smoke and the risk of pancreatic cancer: Findings from a Canadian population-based case-control study . Can. J. Public Health , 95 : 32 – 37 .
  • Vinceti , M. , Rovesti , S. , Bergomi , M. , Calzolari , E. , Candela , S. , Campagna , A. , Milan , M. and Vivoli , G. 2001 . Risk of birth defects in a population exposed to environmental lead pollution . Sci. Total Environ. , 278 : 23 – 30 .
  • Vineis , P. , Terracini , B. , Ciccone , G. , Cignetti , A. , Colombo , E. , Donna , A. , Maffi , L. , Pisa , R. , Ricci , P. Zanini , E. 1987 . Phenoxy herbicides and soft-tissue sarcomas in female rice weeders. A population-based case-referent study . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 13 : 9 – 17 .
  • Vivoli , G. , Fantuzzi , G. , Bergomi , M. , Tonelli , E. , Gatto , M. R. , Zanetti , F. and Del Dot , M. 1993 . Relationship between low lead exposure and somatic growth in adolescents . J. Expos. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. , 3 ( Suppl 1 ) : 201 – 209 .
  • Vreugdenhil , H. J. , Lanting , C. I. , Mulder , P. G. , Boersma , E. R. and Weisglas-Kuperus , N. 2002 . Effects of prenatal PCB and dioxin background exposure on cognitive and motor abilities in Dutch children at school age . J. Pediatr. , 140 : 48 – 56 .
  • Vreugdenhil , H. J. , Mulder , P. G. , Emmen , H. H. and Weisglas-Kuperus , N. 2004a . Effects of perinatal exposure to PCBs on neuropsychological functions in the Rotterdam cohort at 9 years of age . Neuropsychology , 18 : 185 – 193 .
  • Vreugdenhil , H. J. , Van Zanten , G. A. , Brocaar , M. P. , Mulder , P. G. and Weisglas-Kuperus , N. 2004b . Prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and breastfeeding: opposing effects on auditory P300 latencies in 9-year-old Dutch children . Dev. Med. Child. Neurol. , 46 : 398 – 405 .
  • Vrijheid , M. 2000 . Health effects of residence near hazardous waste landfill sites: a review of epidemiologic literature . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 101 – 112 .
  • Vrijheid , M. , Armstrong , B. , Dolk , H. , van Tongeren , M. and Botting , B. 2003 . Risk of hypospadias in relation to maternal occupational exposure to potential endocrine disrupting chemicals . Occup. Environ. Med. , 60 : 543 – 550 .
  • Vrijheid , M. , Dolk , H. , Armstrong , B. , Abramsky , L. , Bianchi , F. , Fazarinc , I. , Garne , E. , Ide , R. , Nelen , V. , Robert , E. , Scott , J. E. , Stone , D. and Tenconi , R. 2002a . Chromosomal congenital anomalies and residence near hazardous waste landfill sites . Lancet , 359 : 320 – 322 .
  • Vrijheid , M. , Dolk , H. , Armstrong , B. , Boschi , G. , Busby , A. , Jorgensen , T. and Pointer , P. 2002b . Hazard potential ranking of hazardous waste landfill sites and risk of congenital anomalies . Occup. Environ. Med. , 59 : 768 – 776 .
  • Walkowiak , J. , Altmann , L. , Kramer , U. , Sveinsson , K. , Turfeld , M. , Weishoff-Houben , M. and Winneke , G. 1998 . Cognitive and sensorimotor functions in 6-year-old children in relation to lead and mercury levels: adjustment for intelligence and contrast sensitivity in computerized testing . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 20 : 511 – 521 .
  • Walkowiak , J. , Wiener , J. A. , Fastabend , A. , Heinzow , B. , Kramer , U. , Schmidt , E. , Steingruber , H. J. , Wundram , S. and Winneke , G. 2001 . Environmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and quality of the home environment: Effects on psychodevelopment in early childhood . Lancet , 358 : 1602 – 1607 .
  • Wang , S. L. , Chen , T. T. , Hsu , J. F. , Hsu , C. C. , Chang , L. W. , Ryan , J. J. , Guo , Y. L. and Lambert , G. H. 2003a . Neonatal and childhood teeth in relation to perinatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dibenzofurans: observations of the Yucheng children in Taiwan . Environ. Res. , 93 : 131 – 137 .
  • Wang , X. , Chen , C. , Wang , L. , Chen , D. , Guang , W. and French , J. 2003b . . Conception, early pregnancy loss, and time to clinical pregnancy: A population-based prospective study . Fertil. Steril. , 79 : 577 – 584 .
  • Wasserman , G. , Graziano , J. H. , Factor-Litvak , P. , Popovac , D. , Morina , N. , Musabegovic , A. , Vrenezi , N. , Capuni-Paracka , S. , Lekic , V. and Preteni-Redjepi , E. and others. 1992 . Independent effects of lead exposure and iron deficiency anemia on developmental outcome at age 2 years . J. Pediatr. , 121 : 695 – 703 .
  • Wasserman , G. A. , Factor-Litvak , P. , Liu , X. , Todd , A. C. , Kline , J. K. , Slavkovich , V. , Popovac , D. and Graziano , J. H. 2003 . The relationship between blood lead, bone lead and child intelligence . Neuropsychol. Dev. Cogn. Sect. C Child Neuropsychol. , 9 : 22 – 34 .
  • Wasserman , G. A. , Liu , X. , Lolacono , N. J. , Factor-Litvak , P. , Kline , J. K. , Popovac , D. , Morina , N. , Musabegovic , A. , Vrenezi , N. , Capuni-Paracka , S. , Lekic , V. , Preteni-Redjepi , E. , Hadzialjevic , S. , Slavkovich , V. and Graziano , J. H. 1997 . Lead exposure and intelligence in 7-year-old children: The Yugoslavia Prospective Study . Environ. Health Perspect. , 105 : 956 – 962 .
  • Wasserman , G. A. , Liu , X. , Popovac , D. , Factor-Litvak , P. , Kline , J. , Waternaux , C. , LoIacono , N. and Graziano , J. H. 2000a . The Yugoslavia Prospective Lead Study: Contributions of prenatal and postnatal lead exposure to early intelligence . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 22 : 811 – 818 .
  • Wasserman , G. A. , Musabegovic , A. , Liu , X. , Kline , J. , Factor-Litvak , P. and Graziano , J. H. 2000b . Lead exposure and motor functioning in 4(1/2)-year-old children: The Yugoslavia prospective study . J. Pediatr. , 137 : 555 – 561 .
  • Wasserman , G. A. , Staghezza-Jaramillo , B. , Shrout , P. , Popovac , D. and Graziano , J. 1998 . The effect of lead exposure on behavior problems in preschool children . Am. J. Public Health , 88 : 481 – 486 .
  • Weidner , I. S. , Moller , H. , Jensen , T. K. and Skakkebaek , N. E. 1998 . Cryptorchidism and hypospadias in sons of gardeners and farmers . Environ. Health Perspect. , 106 : 793 – 796 .
  • Weihe , P. , Hansen , J. C. , Murata , K. , Debes , F. , Jorgensen , P. , Steuerwald , U. , White , R. F. and Grandjean , P. 2002 . Neurobehavioral performance of Inuit children with increased prenatal exposure to methylmercury . Int. J. Circumpolar Health , 61 : 41 – 49 .
  • Weisglas-Kuperus , N. , Patandin , S. , Berbers , G. A. , Sas , T. C. , Mulder , P. G. , Sauer , P. J. and Hooijkaas , H. 2000 . Immunologic effects of background exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins in Dutch preschool children . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 : 1203 – 1207 .
  • Weisglas-Kuperus , N. , Vreugdenhil , H. J. and Mulder , P. G. 2004 . Immunological effects of environmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins in Dutch school children . Toxicol. Lett. , 149 : 281 – 285 .
  • Weisskopf , M. G. , Anderson , H. A. , Hanrahan , L. P. , Kanarek , M. S. , Falk , C. M. , Steenport , D. M. and Draheim , L. A. 2005 . Maternal exposure to Great Lakes sport-caught fish and dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethylene, but not polychlorinated biphenyls, is associated with reduced birth weight . Environ. Res. , 97 : 149 – 162 .
  • Wennborg , H. , Bodin , L. , Vainio , H. and Axelsson , G. 2000 . Pregnancy outcome of personnel in Swedish biomedical research laboratories . J. Occup. Environ. Med. , 42 : 438 – 446 .
  • Wennborg , H. , Bodin , L. , Vainio , H. and Axelsson , G. 2001 . Solvent use and time to pregnancy among female personnel in biomedical laboratories in Sweden . Occup. Environ. Med. , 58 : 225 – 231 .
  • Weselak , M. , Arbuckle , T. E. and Foster , W. 2006 . Pesticide exposures and developmental outcomes: the epidemiological evidence . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B , 10 : 41 – 80 .
  • Weselak , M. , Arbuckle , T. E. , Wigle , D. T. and Krewski , D. 2007 . In utero pesticide exposure and childhood morbidity . Environ. Res. , 103 : 79 – 86 .
  • Whyatt , R. M. , Rauh , V. , Barr , D. B. , Camann , D. E. , Andrews , H. F. , Garfinkel , R. , Hoepner , L. A. , Diaz , D. , Dietrich , J. , Reyes , A. , Tang , D. , Kinney , P. L. and Perera , F. P. 2004 . Prenatal insecticide exposures and birth weight and length among an urban minority cohort . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 1125 – 1132 .
  • Wigg , N. R. , Vimpani , G. V. , McMichael , A. J. , Baghurst , P. A. , Robertson , E. F. and Roberts , R. J. 1988 . Port Pirie Cohort study: Childhood blood lead and neuropsychological development at age two years . J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health , 42 : 213 – 219 .
  • Wigle , D. T. 2003 . Child health and the environment , New York : Oxford University Press .
  • Wigle, D. T. 2008. Child health and the environment: Supplemental bibliographies and epidemiologic evidence summary tables. Located http://www.mclaughlincentre.ca/research/child_health/book/index.shtml
  • Wigle , D. T. , Arbuckle , T. E. , Walker , M. , Wade , M. G. , Liu , S. and Krewski , D. 2006 . Environmental hazards: evidence for effects on child health . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B , 10 : 3 – 39 .
  • Wiklund , K. , Dich , J. and Holm , L. E. 1988 . Soft tissue sarcoma risk in Swedish licensed pesticide applicators . J. Occup. Med. , 30 : 801 – 804 .
  • Wilhelm , M. and Ritz , B. 2003 . Residential proximity to traffic and adverse birth outcomes in Los Angeles County, California, 1994–1996 . Environ. Health Perspect. , 111 : 207 – 216 .
  • Wilhelm , M. and Ritz , B. 2005 . Local variations in CO and particulate air pollution and adverse birth outcomes in Los Angeles County, California, USA . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 1212 – 1221 .
  • Wilkins , J. R. 3rd and Koutras , R. A. 1988 . Paternal occupation and brain cancer in offspring: A mortality-based case-control study . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 14 : 299 – 318 .
  • Wilkins , J. R. 3rd and Sinks , T. 1990 . Parental occupation and intracranial neoplasms of childhood: Results of a case-control interview study . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 132 : 275 – 292 .
  • Willis , W. O. , de Peyster , A. , Molgaard , C. A. , Walker , C. and MacKendrick , T. 1993 . Pregnancy outcome among women exposed to pesticides through work or residence in an agricultural area . J. Occup. Med. , 35 : 943 – 949 .
  • Windham , G. C. , Hopkins , B. , Fenster , L. and Swan , S. H. 2000 . Prenatal active or passive tobacco smoke exposure and the risk of preterm delivery or low birth weight . Epidemiology , 11 : 427 – 433 .
  • Windham , G. C. , Shusterman , D. , Swan , S. H. , Fenster , L. and Eskenazi , B. 1991 . Exposure to organic solvents and adverse pregnancy outcome . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 20 : 241 – 259 .
  • Winneke , G. , Altmann , L. , Kramer , U. , Turfeld , M. , Behler , R. , Gutsmuths , F. J. and Mangold , M. 1994 . Neurobehavioral and neurophysiological observations in six year old children with low lead levels in East and West Germany . Neurotoxicology , 15 : 705 – 713 .
  • Winneke , G. , Brockhaus , A. , Ewers , U. , Kramer , U. and Neuf , M. 1990 . Results from the European multicenter study on lead neurotoxicity in children: Implications for risk assessment . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 12 : 553 – 559 .
  • Winneke , G. , Bucholski , A. , Heinzow , B. , Kramer , U. , Schmidt , E. , Walkowiak , J. , Wiener , J. A. and Steingruber , H. J. 1998 . Developmental neurotoxicity of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBS): Cognitive and psychomotor functions in 7-month old children . Toxicol. Lett. , 102–103 : 423 – 428 .
  • Winneke , G. , Kramer , U. , Brockhaus , A. , Ewers , U. , Kujanek , G. , Lechner , H. and Janke , W. 1983 . Neuropsychological studies in children with elevated tooth-lead concentrations. II. Extended study . Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health , 51 : 231 – 252 .
  • Wolfe , W. H. , Michalek , J. E. , Miner , J. C. , Rahe , A. J. , Moore , C. A. , Needham , L. L. and Patterson , D. G. Jr. 1995 . Paternal serum dioxin and reproductive outcomes among veterans of Operation Ranch Hand . Epidemiology , 6 : 17 – 22 .
  • Wollins , D. S. , Ferencz , C. , Boughman , J. A. and Loffredo , C. A. 2001 . A population-based study of coarctation of the aorta: comparisons of infants with and without associated ventricular septal defect . Teratology , 64 : 229 – 236 .
  • Wood, A. 2007. Compendium of pesticide common names. Located http://www.alanwood.net/pesticides/
  • Woodruff , T. J. , Parker , J. D. and Schoendorf , K. C. 2006 . Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) air pollution and selected causes of postneonatal infant mortality in California . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 786 – 790 .
  • World Health Organization. 1990. Environmental health criteria 101. Methylmercury. Located http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc101.htm
  • World Health Organization. 1999. International consultation on environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) and child health. Located http://www.who.int/tobacco/research/en/ets_report.pdf
  • World Health Organization . 2000 . Assessment of the health risk of dioxins; Re-evaluation of the tolerable daily intake (TDI): Executive summary . Food Addit. Contam. , 17 : 223 – 240 .
  • Wright , J. M. , Schwartz , J. and Dockery , D. W. 2004 . The effect of disinfection by-products and mutagenic activity on birth weight and gestational duration . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 920 – 925 .
  • Wright , J. M. , Schwartz , J. , Vartiainen , T. , Maki-Paakkanen , J. , Altshul , L. , Harrington , J. J. and Dockery , D. W. 2002 . 3-Chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone (MX) and mutagenic activity in Massachusetts drinking water . Environ. Health Perspect. , 110 : 157 – 164 .
  • Wu , T. , Buck , G. M. and Mendola , P. 2003 . Blood lead levels and sexual maturation in U.S. girls: The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994 . Environ. Health Perspect. , 111 : 737 – 741 .
  • Wu , X. , Groves , F. D. , McLaughlin , C. C. , Jemal , A. , Martin , J. and Chen , V. W. 2005 . Cancer incidence patterns among adolescents and young adults in the United States . Cancer Causes Control , 16 : 309 – 320 .
  • Wulff , M. , Hogberg , U. and Sandstrom , A. I. 1995 . Perinatal outcome among the offspring of employees and people living around a Swedish smelter . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 21 : 277 – 282 .
  • Wulff , M. , Hogberg , U. and Sandstrom-Holmgren , A. 1996 . Congenital malformations in the vicinity of a smelter in Northern Sweden, 1973–1990 . Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. , 10 : 22 – 31 .
  • Wulff , M. , Hogberg , U. and Stenlund , H. 1999 . The effect of smelter work on fecundity . J. Occup. Environ. Med. , 41 : 678 – 685 .
  • Wulff , M. , Hogberg , U. and Stenlund , H. 2002 . Occupational and environmental risks of spontaneous abortions around a smelter . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 41 : 131 – 138 .
  • Yanez , L. , Garcia-Nieto , E. , Rojas , E. , Carrizales , L. , Mejia , J. , Calderon , J. , Razo , I. and Diaz-Barriga , F. 2003 . DNA damage in blood cells from children exposed to arsenic and lead in a mining area . Environ. Res. , 93 : 231 – 240 .
  • Yang , C. Y. 2004 . Drinking water chlorination and adverse birth outcomes in Taiwan . Toxicology , 198 : 249 – 254 .
  • Yang , C. Y. , Chang , C. C. , Chuang , H. Y. , Ho , C. K. , Wu , T. N. and Tsai , S. S. 2003a . Evidence for increased risks of preterm delivery in a population residing near a freeway in Taiwan . Arch. Environ. Health , 58 : 649 – 654 .
  • Yang , C. Y. , Chang , C. C. , Tsai , S. S. , Chuang , H. Y. , Ho , C. K. and Wu , T. N. 2003b . Arsenic in drinking water and adverse pregnancy outcome in an arseniasis-endemic area in northeastern Taiwan . Environ. Res. , 91 : 29 – 34 .
  • Yang , C. Y. , Chang , C. C. , Tsai , S. S. , Chuang , H. Y. , Ho , C. K. , Wu , T. N. and Sung , F. C. 2003c . Preterm delivery among people living around Portland cement plants . Environ. Res. , 92 : 64 – 68 .
  • Yang , C. Y. , Cheng , B. H. , Hsu , T. Y. , Chuang , H. Y. , Wu , T. N. and Chen , P. C. 2002 . Association between petrochemical air pollution and adverse pregnancy outcomes in Taiwan . Arch. Environ. Health , 57 : 461 – 465 .
  • Yang , C. Y. , Cheng , B. H. , Tsai , S. S. , Wu , T. N. , Lin , M. C. and Lin , K. C. 2000 . Association between chlorination of drinking water and adverse pregnancy outcome in Taiwan . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 : 765 – 768 .
  • Yang , C. Y. , Tseng , Y. T. and Chang , C. C. 2003 . Effects of air pollution on birth weight among children born between 1995 and 1997 in Kaohsiung, Taiwan . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 66 : 807 – 816 .
  • Yolton , K. , Dietrich , K. , Auinger , P. , Lanphear , B. P. and Hornung , R. 2005 . Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and cognitive abilities among U.S. children and adolescents . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 98 – 103 .
  • Young , J. G. , Eskenazi , B. , Gladstone , E. A. , Bradman , A. , Pedersen , L. , Johnson , C. , Barr , D. B. , Furlong , C. E. and Holland , N. T. 2005 . Association between in utero organophosphate pesticide exposure and abnormal reflexes in neonates . Neurotoxicology , 26 : 199 – 209 .
  • Yu , C. L. , Wang , S. F. , Pan , P. C. , Wu , M. T. , Ho , C. K. , Smith , T. J. , Li , Y. , Pothier , L. and Christiani , D. C. 2006 . Residential exposure to petrochemicals and the risk of leukemia: Using geographic information system tools to estimate individual-level residential exposure . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 164 : 200 – 207 .
  • Yu , M. L. , Guo , Y. L. , Hsu , C. C. and Rogan , W. J. 2000 . Menstruation and reproduction in women with polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) poisoning: Long-term follow-up interviews of the women from the Taiwan Yucheng cohort . Int. J. Epidemiol. , 29 : 672 – 677 .
  • Yu , M. L. , Hsin , J. W. , Hsu , C. C. , Chan , W. C. and Guo , Y. L. 1998 . The immunologic evaluation of the Yucheng children . Chemosphere , 37 : 1855 – 1865 .
  • Zahm , S. H. and Ward , M. H. 1998 . Pesticides and childhood cancer . Environ. Health Perspect. , 106 ( Suppl. 3 ) : 893 – 908 .
  • Zhang , J. , Cai , W. W. and Lee , D. J. 1992 . Occupational hazards and pregnancy outcomes . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 21 : 397 – 408 .
  • Zhang , Y. L. , Zhao , Y. C. , Wang , J. X. , Zhu , H. D. , Liu , Q. F. , Fan , Y. G. , Wang , N. F. , Zhao , J. H. , Liu , H. S. , Ou-Yang , L. , Liu , A. P. and Fan , T. Q. 2004 . Effect of environmental exposure to cadmium on pregnancy outcome and fetal growth: A study on healthy pregnant women in China . J. Environ. Sci. Health A Tox. Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng. , 39 : 2507 – 2515 .
  • Zhu , J. L. , Hjollund , N. H. , Andersen , A. M. and Olsen , J. 2006 . Occupational exposure to pesticides and pregnancy outcomes in gardeners and farmers: A study within the Danish National Birth Cohort . J. Occup. Environ. Med. , 48 : 347 – 352 .
  • Zierler , S. , Theodore , M. , Cohen , A. and Rothman , K. J. 1988 . Chemical quality of maternal drinking water and congenital heart disease . Int. J. Epidemiol. , 17 : 589 – 594 .
  • Zmirou , D. , Gauvin , S. , Pin , I. , Momas , I. , Sahraoui , F. , Just , J. , Le Moullec , Y. , Bremont , F. , Cassadou , S. , Reungoat , P. , Albertini , M. , Lauvergne , N. , Chiron , M. and Labbe , A. 2004 . Traffic related air pollution and incidence of childhood asthma: Results of the Vesta case-control study . J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health , 58 : 18 – 23 .
  • Zou , C. , Zhao , Z. , Tang , L. , Chen , Z. and Du , L. 2003 . The effect of lead on brainstem auditory evoked potentials in children . Chin. Med. J. Engl. , 116 : 565 – 568 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Order Reprints Request Corporate Permissions

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

Request Academic Permissions

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.

Related research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.