Dose-Response Relationships For Blood Cobalt Concentrations and Health Effects: A Review of the Literature and Application of a Biokinetic Model

REFERENCES

• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry . 2004 . Toxicological Profile for Cobalt , Atlanta , GA : U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry .
   Google Scholar
• Alexander , C. S. 1969 . Cobalt and the heart . Ann. Intern. Med. , 70 : 411 – 413 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander , C. S. 1972 . Cobalt-beer cardiomyopathy: A clinical and pathologic study of twenty-eight cases . Am. J. Med. , 53 : 395 – 417 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alimonti , A. , Bocca , B. , Mannella , E. , Petrucci , F. , Zennaro , F. , Cotichini , R. , D'Ippolito , C , Agresti , A. , Caimi , S. and Forte , G. 2005 . Assessment of reference values for selected elements in a healthy urban population . Ann. Ist. Super. Sanita , 41 : 181 – 187 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• American Conference of Industrial Hygienists . 2001 . Cobalt, all inorganic forms, except cobalt oxides: BEI , Cincinnati , OH : American Conference of Industrial Hygienists .
   Google Scholar
• Anand , V. T. , Mann , S. B. , Dash , R. J. and Mehra , Y. N. 1989 . Auditory investigations in hypothyroidism . Acta Otolaryngol. , 108 : 83 – 87 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , M. B. , Lepak , K. , Farinas , V. and George , W. J. 1993 . Protective action of zinc against cobalt-induced testicular damage in the mouse . Reprod. Toxicol. , 7 : 49 – 54 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , M. B. , Pedigo , N. G. , Katz , R. P. and George , W. J. 1992 . Histopathology of testes from mice chronically treated with cobalt . Reprod. Toxicol. 6: 41–50. ,
   Google Scholar
• Angerer , J. , Heinrich , R. , Szadkowski , D. and Lehnert , G. 1985 . “ Occupational exposure to cobalt powder and salts biological monitoring and health effects ” . In International Conference on Heavy Metals in the Environment: Athens, September 1985, Vol. , Edited by: Lekkas , T. D. Vol. 2 , 11 – 13 . Edinburgh , , Scotland, UK : CEP Consultants .
   Google Scholar
• Antoniou , J. , Zukor , D. J. , Mwale , F. , Minarik , W. , Petit , A. and Huk , O. L. 2008 . Metal ion levels in the blood of patients after hip resurfacing: A comparison between twenty-eight and thirty-six-millimeter-head metal-on-metal prostheses . J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. , 90 : 142 – 148 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apostoli , P. , Catalani , S. , Zaghini , A. , Mariotti , A. , Poliani , P. L. , Vielmi , V. , Semeraro , F. , Duse , S. , Porzionato , A. , Macchi , V. , Padovani , A. , Rizzetti , M. C. and De Caro , R. 2012 . High doses of cobalt induce optic and auditory neuropathy . Exp. Tox. Pathol. , Advance online publication, October 12, 2012. doi: 10.1016/j.etp.2012.09.006
   Google Scholar
• Barceloux , D. 1999 . Cobalt . Clin. Toxicol. , 37 : 201 – 216 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Booth , E. and Montgomery , P. O. 1956 . Thyroid hyperplasia: Report of a case in an infant treated with cobalt . South. Med. J. , 49 : 1408 – 1410 .
   Google Scholar
• Bourg , W. J. , Nation , J. R. and Clark , D. E. 1985 . The effects of chronic cobalt exposure on passive-avoidance performance in the adult rat . Bull. Psychonom. Soc. , 23 : 527 – 530 .
   Google Scholar
• Bowie , E. A. and Hurley , P. J. 1975 . Cobalt chloride in the treatment of refractory anaemia in patients undergoing long-term haemodialysis . Aust. N. Z. J. Med. , 5 : 306 – 314 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brodner , W. , Bitzan , P. , Meisinger , V. , Kaider , A. , Gottsauner-Wolf , F. and Kotz , R. 2003 . Serum cobalt levels after metal-on-metal total hip arthroplasty . J. Bone Joint Surg. Br. , 85-A : 2168 – 2173 .
   Google Scholar
• Campbell , J. R. and Estey , M. P. 2012 . Metal release from hip prosheses: cobalt and chromium toxicity and the role of the clinical laboratory . Clin. Chem. Lab Med. , Advance online publication, Sept 26, 2012. doi: 10.1515/cclm-2012-0492
   Google Scholar
• Catelas , I. , Campbell , P. A. , Bobyn , J. D. , Medley , J. B. and Huk , O. L. 2006 . Wear particles from metal-on-metal total hip replacements: Effects of implant design and implantation time . Proc. Inst. Mech.l Eng, Part H J. Eng. Med. , 220 : 195 – 208 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chamberlain , J. L. 1961 . Thyroid enlargement probably induced by cobalt: A report of 3 cases . J. Pediatr. , 59 : 81 – 86 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coleman , R. F. , Herrington , J. and Scales , J. T. 1973 . Concentration of wear products in hair, blood, and urine after total hip replacement . Br. Med. J. , 1 : 527 – 529 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrier , D. E. , Mollenhauer , H. H. , Clark , D. E. , Hare , M. F. and Elissalde , M. H. 1985 . Testicular degeneration and necrosis induced by dietary cobalt . Vet. Pathol. , 22 : 610 – 616 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtis , J. R. , Goode , G. C. , Herrington , J. and Urdaneta , L. E. 1976 . Possible cobalt toxicity in maintenance hemodialysis patients after treatment with cobaltous chloride: A study of blood and tissue cobalt concentrations in normal subjects and patients with terminal and renal failure . Clin. Nephrol. , 5 : 61 – 65 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Davis , J. E. and Fields , J. P. 1958 . Experimental production of polycythemia in humans by administration of cobalt chloride . Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. , 99 : 493 – 495 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desert Rain Nutrition. 2012. Liquid ionic Angstrom cobalt. Available atSilt, CO: Desert Rain Nutrition (accessed January 19, 2012). www.desertrainnutrition.com/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=1_8&products_id=192 (http://www.desertrainnutrition.com/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=1_8&products_id=192)
   Google Scholar
• Diaz , G. J. , Julian , R. J. and Squires , E. J. 1994 . Cobalt-induced polycythaemia causing right ventricular hypertrophy and ascites in meat-type chickens . Avian Pathol , 23 ( 1 ) : 91 – 104 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Discount Remedies, Inc. 2011. Cobalt supplement, ionic mineral supplement, 60 day supply- 8 oz., MineralLife: Product description and supplement facts. Available at http://www.discountremediesinc.com/ionic-mineral-cobalt-supplement-8-oz.html (http://www.discountremediesinc.com/ionic-mineral-cobalt-supplement-8-oz.html)
   Google Scholar
• Domingo , J. L. , Llobet , J. M. and Bernat , R. 1984 . A study of the effects of cobalt administered orally to rats . Arch. Farmacol. Toxicol. , 10 : 13 – 20 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Duckham , J. M. and Lee , H. A. 1976 . The treatment of refractory anaemia of chronic renal failure with cobalt chloride . Q. J. Med. , 45 : 277 – 294 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Elbetieha , A. , Al-Thani , A. S. , Al-Thanki , R. K. , Darmani , H. and Owais , W. 2008 . Effects of chronic exposure to cobalt chloride on the fertility and testes in mice . J. Appl. Biol. Sci. , 2 : 1 – 6 .
   Google Scholar
• Engel , R. W. , Price , N. O. and Miller , R. F. 1967 . Copper, manganese, cobalt, and molybdenum balance in pre-adolescent girls . J. Nutr. , 92 : 197 – 204 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engh , C. A. , MacDonald , S Jr. , Sritulanondha , S. , Thompson , A. , Naudie , D. and Engh , C. 2009 . Metal ion levels after metal-on-metal total hip arthroplasty: A randomized trial . Clin. Orthop. , 467 : 101 – 111 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• European Food Safety Authority . 2009 . Scientific opinion on the use of cobalt compounds as additives in animal nutrition . EFSA J. , 7 : 1 – 45 .
   Google Scholar
• Expert Group on Vitamins and Minerals . 2003 . Safe upper levels for vitamins and minerals , London , , UK : Food Standards Agency .
   Google Scholar
• Finley , B. L. , Monnot , A. D. , Paustenbach , D. J. and Gaffney , S. H. 2012 . Derivation of a chronic reference dose for cobalt . Reg Tox Pharm. , 64 : 491 – 503 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner , F. H. 1953 . The use of cobaltous chloride in the anemia associated with chronic renal disease . J. Lab. Clin. Med. , 41 : 56 – 64 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gill , H.S. , Grammatopoulos , G. , Adshead , S. , Tsialogiannis , E. and Tsiridis , E. 2012 . Molecular and immune system toxicity of CoCr nanoparticles in MoM hip arthroplasty . Trends Mol. Med. , 18 ( 3 ) : 145 – 155 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross , R. T. , Kriss , J. P. and Spaet , T. H. 1955 . The hematopoietic and goitrogenic effects of cobaltous chloride in patients with sickle cell anemia . Pediatrics , 15 : 284 – 290 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haga , Y. , Cline , N. , Hatori , N. , Hoffmann-Bang , C. , Pehrsson , S. K. and Ryden , L. 1996 . Impaired myocaridal function following chronic cobalt exposure in an isolated rat heart model . Trace Elem. Electrolytes , 13 : 69 – 74 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harp , M. J. and Scoular , F. I. 1952 . Cobalt metabolism of young college women on self-selected diets . J. Nutr. , 47 : 67 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart , A. J. , Quinn , P. D. , Sampson , B. , Sandison , A. , Atkinson , K. D. , Skinner , J. A. , Powell , J. J. and Mosselmans , J. F. W. 2010 . The chemical form of metallic debris in tissues surrounding metal-on-metal hips with unexplained failure . Acta Biomater. , 6 : 4439 – 4446 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hokin , B. , Adams , M. , Ashton , J. and Louie , H. 2004a . Analysis of the cobalt content in Australian foods . Asia Pacific J. Clin. Nutr. , 13 : 284 – 288 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hokin , B. , Adams , M. , Ashton , J. and Louie , H. 2004b . Comparison of the dietary cobalt intake in three different Australian diets . Asia Pacific J. Clin. Nutr. , 13 : 289 – 291 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holly , R. G. 1955a . Anemia in pregnancy . Obst. Gynecol. , 5 : 562 – 568 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holly , R. G. 1955b . Studies on iron and cobalt metabolism . J Am Med Assoc , 158 : 1349 – 1352 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huck , D. W. and Clawson , A. J. 1976 . Excess dietary cobalt in pigs. . J. Animal Sci. , 43 ( 6 ) : 1231 – 1246 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikeda , T. , Takahashi , K. , Kabata , T. , Sakagoshi , D. , Tomita , K. and Yamada , M. 2010 . Polyneuropathy caused by cobalt–chromium metallosis after total hip replacement . Muscle Nerve , 42 : 140 – 143 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Commission on Radiological Protection . 2006 . Human alimentary tract model for radiological protection. ICRP Publication 100. A report of The International Commission on Radiological Protection . Ann. ICRP , 36 : 25 – 327 .
   Google Scholar
• Jacobs , J. J. , Skipor , A. K. , Doorn , P. F. , Schmalzried , T. P. , Black , J. and Amstutz , H. C. 1996 . Cobalt and chromium concentrations in patients with metal on metal total hip replacements . Clin. Orthop. Rel. Res. , 329S : S256 – 263 .
   Google Scholar
• Jacquet , M. 1949 . Huit annes de cobaltotherapie en cardiologie . Arch. Mal. Coeur Vaiss. , 42 : 1095 – 1111 .
   Google Scholar
• Jaimet , C. H. and Thode , H. G. 1955 . Thyroid function studies on children receiving cobalt therapy . J. Am. Med. Assoc. , 158 : 1353 – 1355 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jansen , H. M. , Knollema , S. , van der Duin , L. V , Willemsen , A. T. , Wiersma , A. , Franssen , E. J. , Russel , F. G. , Korf , J. and Paans , A. M. 1996 . Pharmacokinetics and dosimetry of cobalt-55 and cobalt-57 . J. Nucl. Med. , 37 : 2082 – 2086 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jarvis , J. Q. , Hammond , E. , Meier , R. and Robinson , C. 1992 . Cobalt cardiomyopathy: A report of two cases from mineral assay laboratories and a review of the literature . J. Occup. Environ. Med. , 34 : 620 – 626 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jelkmann , W. and Lundby , C. 2011 . Blood doping and its detection . Blood , 118 : 2395 – 2404 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jordan , C. , Whitman , R. D. , Harbut , M. and Tanner , B. 1990 . Memory deficits in workers suffering from hard metal disease . Toxicol. Lett. , 54 : 241 – 243 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karovic , O. , Tonazzini , I. , Rebola , N. , Edstrom , E. , Lovdahl , C. , Fredholm , B. B. and Dare , E. 2007 . Toxic effects of cobalt in primary cultures of mouse astrocytes. Similarities with hypoxia and role of HIF-1alpha . Biochem. Pharmacol. , 73 : 694 – 708 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy , A. , Dornan , J. D. and King , R. 1981 . Fatal myocardial disease associated with industrial exposure to cobalt . Lancet , 317 : 412 – 414 .
   Google Scholar
• Kesteloot , H. , Roelandt , J. , Willems , J. , Claes , J. H. and Joossens , J. V. 1968 . An enquiry into the role of cobalt in the heart disease of chronic beer drinkers . Circulation , 37 : 854 – 864 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khawaja , N. M. , Taher , B. M. , Barham , M. E. , Naser , A. A. , Hadidy , A. M. , Ahmad , A. T. , Hamamy , H. A. , Yaghi , N. A. and Ajlouni , K. M. 2006 . Pituitary enlargement in patients with primary hypothyroidism . Endocr. Pract. , 12 : 29 – 34 .
   Google Scholar
• Krasovskii , G. N. and Fridliand , S. A. 1971 . [Experimental data for substantiating the maximum permissible concentration of cobalt in water] . Gig. Sanit. , 36 : 95 – 96 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kriss , J. P. , Carnes , W. H. and Gross , R. T. 1955 . Hypothyroidism and thyroid hyperplasia in patients treated with cobalt . J. Am. Med. Assoc. , 157 : 117 – 121 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lantin , A. C. , Mallants , A. , Vermeulen , J. , Speybroeck , N. , Hoet , P. and Lison , D. 2011 . Absence of adverse effect on thyroid function and red blood cells in a population of workers exposed to cobalt compounds . Toxicol. Lett. , 201 : 42 – 46 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leggett , R. W. 2008 . The biokinetics of inorganic cobalt in the human body . Sci. Total Environ. , 389 : 259 – 269 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leggett , R. W. and Williams , L. R. 1991 . Suggested reference values for regional blood volumes in humans . Health Phys. , 60 : 139 – 154 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Licht , A. , Oliver , M. and Rachmilewitz , E. A. 1972 . Optic atrophy following treatment with cobalt chloride in a patient with pancytopenia and hypercellular marrow . Isr. J. Med. Sci. , 8 : 61 – 66 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Linna , A. , Oksa , P. , Groundstroem , K. , Halkosaari , M. , Palmroos , P. , Huikko , S. and Uitti , J. 2004 . Exposure to cobalt in the production of cobalt and cobalt compounds and its effect on the heart . Occup. Environ. Med. , 61 : 877 – 885 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippi , G. , Franchini , M. and Guidi , G. C. 2006 . Blood doping by cobalt. Should we measure cobalt in athletes? . J. Occup. Med. Toxicol. , 1 : 18
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Little , J. A. and Sunico , R. 1958 . Cobalt-induced goiter with cardiomegaly and congestive failure . J. Pediatr. , 52 : 284 – 288 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacDonald , S. J.s. , McCalden , R. W. , Chess , D. G. , Bourne , R. B. , Rorabeck , C. H. , Cleland , D. and Leung , F. 2003 . Metal-on-metal versus polyethylene in hip arthroplasty: A randomized clinical trial . Clin. Orthop. , 406 : 282 – 296 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Machado , C. , Appelbe , A. and Wood , R. 2012 . Arthroprosthetic cobaltism and cardiomyopathy . Heart Lung Circ , 2 ( 11 ) : 759 – 760 .
   Google Scholar
• Mao , X. , Wong , A. A. and Crawford , R. W. 2011 . Cobalt toxicity—An emerging clinical problem in patients with metal-on-metal hip prostheses? . Med. J. Aust. , 194 : 649 – 651 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayo Clinic (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research). 2012a. Test ID: FRT3P – T3 (Triiodothyronine), Free and Total, Serum. Clinical and Interpretive. 2012 http://www.mayomedicallaboratories.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/600915 (http://www.mayomedicallaboratories.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/600915)
   Google Scholar
• Clinic , Mayo . 2012b . Evaluation of metal-on-metal wear of orthopedic implants. The role of serum chromium and cobalt analysis . Communique , 37 : 1 – 6 .
   Google Scholar
• McNally , K. , Cotton , R. and Loizou , G. D. 2011 . A workflow for global sensitivity analysis of PBPK models . Front. Pharmacol. , 2 : 1 – 22 .
   Google Scholar
• Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency. 2012. Medical Device Alert: All Metal-On-Metal (MOM) Hip Replacements. MDA/2012/036. Issued June 25, 2012. London: MHRA. Retrieved November, 2012 http://www.mhra.gov.uk/home/groups/dtsbs/documents/medicaldevicealert/con155767.pdf (http://www.mhra.gov.uk/home/groups/dtsbs/documents/medicaldevicealert/con155767.pdf)
   Google Scholar
• Meecham , H. M. and Humphrey , P. 1991 . Industrial exposure to cobalt causing optic atrophy and nerve deafness: A case report . J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiat , 54 : 374 – 375 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohiuddin , S. M. , Taskar , P. K. , Rheault , M. , Roy , P. E. , Chenard , J. and Morin , Y. 1970 . Experimental cobalt cardiomyopathy . Am. Heart J. , 80 : 532 – 543 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mollenhauer , H. H. , Corrier , D. E. , Clark , D. E. , Hare , M. F. and Elissalde , M. H. 1985 . Effects of dietary cobalt on testicular structure . Virchows Arch. B Cell Pathol. Incl. Mol. Pathol. , 49 : 241 – 248 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morin , Y. , Tetu , A. and Mercier , G. 1971 . Cobalt cardiomyopathy: Clinical aspects . Br. Heart J. , 33 : 175 – 178 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morvai , V. , Szakmary , E. , Tatrai , E. , Ungvary , G. and Folly , G. 1993 . The effects of simultaneous alcohol and cobalt chloride administration on the cardiovascular system of rats . Acta Physiol. Hung. , 81 : 253 – 261 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mother Earth Minerals, Inc.. 2011. Cobalt. (accessed January 5, 2011). Ogden, UT: Mother Earth Minerals, Inc. http://www.meminerals.com/catalog/ProductDetails.asp?ProductID=MINE4S00XEI8Co&DealerID=&Express=1 (http://www.meminerals.com/catalog/ProductDetails.asp?ProductID=MINE4S00XEI8Co&DealerID=&Express=1)
   Google Scholar
• Murdock , H. R. Jr . 1959 . Studies on the pharmacology of cobalt chloride . J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. , 48 : 140 – 142 .
   Google Scholar
• Nation , J. R. , Bourgeois , A. E. , Clark , D. E. and Hare , M. F. 1983 . The effects of chronic cobalt exposure on behavior and metallothionein levels in the adult rat . Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol. , 5 : 9 – 15 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• National Toxicology Program. 1998. NTP Technical Report on the Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Cobalt Sulfate Heptahydrate (CAS No. 10026-24-1) in F344/N Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Inhalation Studies). NIH Publication No. 98-3961. NTP TR 471. August 1998. Research Triangle Park, NC National Toxicology Program, U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health.
   Google Scholar
• Nemni , R. , Bottacchi , E. , Fazio , R. , Mamoli , A. , Corbo , M. , Camerlingo , M. , Galardi , G. , Erenbourg , L. and Canal , N. 1987 . Polyneuropathy in hypothyroidism: Clinical, electrophysiological and morphological findings in four cases . J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiat. , 50 : 1454 – 1460 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oldenburg , M. , Wegner , R. and Baur , X. 2009 . Severe cobalt intoxication due to prosthesis wear in repeated total hip arthroplasty . J. Arthroplasty , 24 : 815 – 825 . 825.e
   Google Scholar
• Onkelinx , C. 1976 . Compartment analysis of cobalt (II) metabolism in rats of various ages . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 38 : 425 – 438 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paley , K. R. , Sobel , E. S. and Yalow , R. S. 1958 . Effect of oral and intravenous cobaltous chloride on thyroid function . J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. , 18 : 850 – 859 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paley , K. R. and Sussman , E. S. 1963 . Absorption of radioactive cobaltous chloride in human subjects . Metabolism. , 12 : 975 – 982 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedigo , N. G. , George , W. J. and Anderson , M. B. 1988 . Effects of acute and chronic exposure to cobalt on male reproduction in mice . Reprod. Toxicol. , 2 : 45 – 53 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pedigo , N. G. and Vernon , M. W. 1993 . Embryonic losses after 10-week administration of cobalt to male mice . Reprod. Toxicol. , 7 ( 2 ) : 111 – 116 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelclova , D. , Sklensky , M. , Janicek , P. and Lach , K. 2012 . Severe cobalt intoxication following hip replacement revision: Clinical features and outcome . Clin. Toxicol. , 50 : 262 – 265 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pimentel-Malaussena , E. , Roche , M. and Layrisse , M. Treatment of eight cases of hyperthyroidism with cobaltous chloride . J. Amer. Med. Assoc. , 167 ( 14 ) 1719 – 1722 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polyzois , I. , Nikolopoulos , D. , Michos , I. , Patsouris , E. and Theocharis , S. 2012 . Local and systemic toxicity of nanoscale debris particles in total hip arthroplasty . J. Appl. Toxicol. , 32 ( 4 ) : 255 – 69 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine. 2012. B12 a good role model. Available at http://www.pcrm.org/search/?cid=225 (http://www.pcrm.org/search/?cid=225)
   Google Scholar
• Raffn , E. , Mikkelsen , S. , Altman , D. G. , Christensen , J. M. and Groth , S. 1988 . Health effects due to occupational exposure to cobalt blue dye among plate painters in a porcelain factory in Denmark . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 14 : 378 – 384 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reuber , S. , Kreuzer , M. and Kirchgessner , M. 1994 . Interactions of cobalt and iron in absorption and retention . J. Trace Elem. Electrolytes Health Dis. , 8 : 151 – 158 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson , P. J. , Wodak , A. D. , Atkinson , L. , Saunders , J. B. and Jewitt , D. E. 1986 . Relation between alcohol intake, myocardial enzyme activity, and myocardial function in dilated cardiomyopathy. Evidence for the concept of alcohol induced heart muscle disease , 56 ( 2 ) : 165 – 170 .
   Google Scholar
• Rizzetti , M. C. , Liberini , P. , Zarattini , G. , Catalani , S. , Pazzaglia , U. , Apostoli , P. and Padovani , A. 2009 . Loss of sight and sound. Could it be the hip? . Lancet , 373 : 1052
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robey , J. S. , Veazey , P. M. and Crawford , J. D. 1956 . Cobalt-induced myxedema; Report of a case . N. Engl. J. Med. , 255 : 955 – 957 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roche , M. and Layrisse , M. 1956 . Effect of cobalt on thyroidal uptake of I131 . J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. , 16 : 831 – 833 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roginski , E. E. and Mertz , W. 1977 . A biphasic response of rats to cobalt . J. Nutr. , 107 ( 8 ) : 1537 – 1542 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin , D. I. 2012 . Neurologic manifestations of hypothyroidism , Waltham , MA : UpToDate .
   Google Scholar
• Sampson , B. and Hart , A. 2011 . Clinical usefulness of blood metal measurements to assess the failure of metal-on-metal hip implants . Ann. Clin. Biochem. 49: 118–131 ,
   Google Scholar
• Sandusky , G. E. , Crawford , M. P. and Roberts , E. D. 1981 . Experimental cobalt cardiomyopathy in the dog: A model for cardiomyopathy in dogs and man . Tox. Appl. Pharmacol. , 60 : 263 – 278 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schirrmacher , U. O. 1967 . Case of cobalt poisoning . Br. Med. J. , 1 : 544 – 545 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schleisner , P. 1956 . Cobalt in anaemia . Acta Med. Scand. , 154 : 177 – 185 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shrivastava , K. , Bansal , A. , Singh , B. , Sairam , M. and Ilavazhagan , G. 2010 . Sub-chronic oral toxicity study in Sprague-Dawley rats with hypoxia mimetic cobalt chloride towards the development of promising neutraceutical for oxygen deprivation . Exp. Toxicol. Pathol. , 62 : 489 – 496 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shrivastava , V. K. , David , C. V. , Khare , N. and Khare , N. 1996 . Cobalt chloride induced histopathological changes in thyroid gland of female mice, Mus musculus (P.) . Pollut. Res. , 15 : 307 – 309 .
   Google Scholar
• Singh , P. P. and Junnarkar , A. Y. 1991 . REH avioural and toxic profile of some essential trace metal salts in mice and rats , 23 : 153 – 159 . Ind. J. Pharmacol
   Google Scholar
• Smith , T. , Edmonds , C. J. and Barnaby , C. F. 1972 . Absorption and retention of cobalt in man by whole-body counting . Health Phys. , 22 : 359 – 367 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sorbie , J. , Olatunbosun , D. , Corbett , W. E. and Valberg , L. S. 1971 . Cobalt excretion test for the assessment of body iron stores . Can. Med. Assoc. J. , 104 : 777 – 782 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanley , A. J. , Hopps , H. C. and Shideler , A. M. 1947 . Cobalt polycythemia relative effects of oral and subcutaneous administration of cobaltous chloride . Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. , 66 : 19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steens , W. , von Foerster , G. and Katzer , A. 2006 . Severe cobalt poisoning with loss of sight after ceramic-metal pairing in a hip—A case report . Acta Orthop. , 77 : 830 – 832 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan , J. , Parker , M. and Carson , S. B. 1968 . Tissue cobalt content in “beer drinkers’ myocardiopathy.” . J. Lab. Clin. Med. , 71 : 893 – 911 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swennen , B. , Buchet , J. P. , Stanescu , D. , Lison , D. and Lauwerys , R. 1993 . Epidemiological survey of workers exposed to cobalt oxides, cobalt salts, and cobalt metal . Br. J. Ind. Med. , 50 : 835 – 842 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Taylor , A. , Marks , V. , Shabaan , A. A. , Mahmood , H. A. , Duckham , J. M. and Lee , H. A. 1977 . “ Cobalt-induced lipaemia and erythropoiesis ” . In Clinical Chemistry and Chemical Toxicology of Metals: Proceedings of the First International Symposium, Organized by the Commission on Toxicology, IUPAC Section on Clinical Chemistry, Held at Monte Carlo, 2–5 March, 1977 , Edited by: Brown , S. S. 105 – 108 . Amsterdam : Elsevier Science, Ltd. .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , D. M. 1962 . The absorption of cobalt from the gastrointestinal tract of the rat . Phys. Med. Biol. , 6 : 445 – 451 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The Vegan Society. 2012. What every vegan should know about vitamin B12. Available at http://www.vegansociety.com/lifestyle/nutrition/b12.aspx (http://www.vegansociety.com/lifestyle/nutrition/b12.aspx)
   Google Scholar
• Tower , S. 2010 . Arthroprosthetic cobaltism: Identification of the at-risk patient . Alaska Med. , 52 : 28 – 32 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tvermoes , B. E. , Otani , J. M. , Unice , K. M. , Finley , B. L. , Paustenbach , D. J. and Galbraith , D. A. 2012 . A 14 day cobalt supplement study to investigate cobalt steady-state levels in five healthy adult volunteers (accepted for publication).
   Google Scholar
• Unice , K. , Monnot , A. , Gaffney , S. H. , Tvermoes , B. , Thuett , K. , Paustenbach , D. and Finley , B. 2012 . Inorganic cobalt supplementation: Prediction of cobalt levels in whole blood and urine using a biokinetic model . Food Chem. Toxicol. , 50 : 2456 – 2461 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . 1988 . Recommendations for and documentation of biological values for use in risk assessment. EPA/600/6-87/008 (NTIS PB88179874) , Washington , DC : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency .
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2007. Technology Transfer Network, Air Toxics Web Site: Cobalt Compounds - Hazard Summary-Created in April 1992; Revised in January 2000. http://www.epa.gov/ttnatw01/hlthef/cobalt.html (http://www.epa.gov/ttnatw01/hlthef/cobalt.html) (Accessed: November 2012 ).
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . September 2011a . Exposure factors handbook 2011 edition. EPA/600/R-09/052F , September , Washington , DC : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Center for Environmental Assessment .
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . 2011b . Recommended use of body weight 3/4 as the default method in derivation of the oral reference dose. EPA/100/R11/00010 Final , Washington , DC : Environmental Protection Agency .
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2012. Integrated Risk Information System: Perchlorate and Perchlorate Salts. http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/1007.htm (http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/1007.htm) (Accessed: November 2012 ).
   Google Scholar
• Valberg , L. S. , Ludwig , J. and Olatunbosun , D. 1969 . Alteration in cobalt absorption in patients with disorders of iron metabolism . Gastroenterology , 56 : 241 – 251 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vegetarian Resource Group. 2012. Vitamin B12 in the vegan diet. Available at http://www.vrg.org/nutrition/b12.htm (http://www.vrg.org/nutrition/b12.htm)
   Google Scholar
• Vendittoli , P. A. , Mottard , S. , Roy , A. G. , Dupont , C. and Lavigne , M. 2007 . Chromium and cobalt ion release following the Durom high carbon content, forged metal-on-metal surface replacement of the hip . J. Bone Joint Surg. Br. , 89 : 441 – 448 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walter , L. R. , Marel , E. , Harbury , R. and Wearne , J. 2008 . Distribution of chromium and cobalt ions in various blood fractions after resurfacing hip arthroplasty . J. Arthroplasty , 23 : 814 – 821 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization . 2006 . Cobalt and inorganic cobalt compounds. Concise International Chemical Assessment Document: 69 , Geneva , Switzerland : World Health Organization .
   Google Scholar
• Wright , J. V. 2005 . Bio-identical steroid hormone replacement: selected observations from 23 years of clinical and laboratory practice . Ann. NY Acad. Sci. , 1057 : 506 – 524 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamamoto , K. , Saito , K. , Takai , T. , Naito , M. and Yoshida , S. 1983 . Visual field defects and pituitary enlargement in primary hypothyroidism . J. Clin. Endocrin. Metab. , 57 : 283 – 287 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zak , V. I. 1968 . On the mechanism of the goitrogenic action of cobalt . Biull Eksp Biol. Med. , 65 ( 3 ) : 51 – 54 .
   Google Scholar