35
Views
3
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Regulation and Function of Class II Major Histocompatibility Complex, CD40, and B7 Expression in Macrophages and Microglia: Implications in Neurological Diseases

, &
Pages 496-512 | Published online: 10 Jul 2009

References

  • Abromson-Leeman S, Maverakis E, Bronson R, Dorf ME (2001). CD40-mediated activation of T cells accelerates, but is not required for, encephalitogenic potential of myelin basic protein-recognizing T cells in a model of progressive experimental autoi=une encephalomyeli-tis. Eur J Immunol 31: 527–538.
  • Afford SC, Randhawa S, Eliopoulos AG, Hubscher SG, Young LS, Adams DH (1999). CD40 activation induces apoptosis in cultured human hepatocytes via induction of cell surface Fas ligand expression and amplifies Fas-mediated hepatocyte death during allograft rejection. J Exp Med 189: 441–446.
  • Alexander WS, Starr R, Fenner JE, Scott CL, Handman E, Sprigg NS, Corbin JE, Cornish AL, Darwiche R, Owczarek CM, Kay TWH, Nicola NA, Hertzog PJ, Metcalf D, Hilton DJ (1999). SOCS1 is a critical inhibitor of interferon y signaling and prevents the potentially fa-tal neonatal actions of this cytokine. Cell 98: 597–608.
  • Aloisi F (2001). Immune function of microglia. Glia 36: 165–179.
  • Aloisi F, Penna G, Polazzi E, Minghetti L, Adorini L (1999a). CD4O-CD154 interaction and IFN-y are required for IL-12 but not prostaglandin E2 secretion by microglia during antigen presentation to Th1 cells. J Immunol 162: 1384–1391.
  • Aloisi F, Ria F, Adorini L (2000). Regulation of T-cell responses by CNS antigen-presenting cells: different roles for microglia and astrocytes. Immunol Today 21: 141–147.
  • Aloisi F, Ria F, Columba-Cabezas S, Hess H, Penna G, Adorini L (1999b). Relative efficiency of microglia, as-trocytes, dendritic cells and B cells in naive CD4+ T cell priming and Th1/Th2 cell restimulation. Eur J Immunol 29: 2705–2714.
  • Aloisi F, Ria F, Penna G, Adorini L (1998). Microglia are more efficient than astrocytes in antigen processing and in Th1 but not Th2 cell activation. J Immunol 160: 4671–4680.
  • Anderson DE, Sharpe AH, Hailer DA (1999). The B7-CD28/CTLA-4 costimulatory pathways in autoimmune disease of the central nervous system. Curr Opin Immunol 11: 677–683.
  • Antel JP, Owens T (1999). Immune regulation and CNS autoi=une disease. J Neuroimmunol 100: 181-189.Amason BGW, Dayal A, Qu ZX, Jensen MA, Genc K, Reder AT (1996). Mechanisms of action of interferon-/3 in multiple sclerosis. Springer Semin Immunopathol 18: 125–148.
  • Bauer J, Huitinga I, Zhao W, Lassmann H, Hickey WF, Dijkstra CD (1995). The role of macrophages, perivas-cular cells, amd microglial cells in the pathogenesis of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Glia 15: 437–446.
  • Bauer J, Sminia T, Wouterlood FG, Dijkstra CD (1994). Phagocytic activity of macrophages and microglial cells during the course of acute and chronic relapsing exper-imental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neurosci Res 38: 365–375.
  • Becher B, Durell BG, Miga AV, Hickey WF, Noelle RJ (2001). The clinical course of experimental autoimmune en-cephalomyelitis and inflammation is controlled by the expression of CD40 within the central nervous system. J Exp Med 193: 967–974.
  • Becher B, Prat A, Antel JP (2000). Brain-immune con-nection: immuno-regulatory properties of CNS-resident cells. Glia 29: 293–304.
  • Beck J, Rondot P, Catinot L, Falcoff E, Kirchner H, Wietzerbin J (1988). Increased production of inter-feron gamma and tumor necrosis factor precedes clinical manifestation in multiple sclerosis: do cytokines trigger off exacerbations? Acta Neurol Scand 78: 318–323.
  • Benichou B, Strominger JL (1991). Class II-antigen-negative patient and mutant B-cell line represent at least three, and probably four, distinct genetic defects defined by complementation analysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88: 4285–4288.
  • Benveniste EN (1997a). Cytokines and the central nervous system. In: Cytokines in health and disease. Remick DG, Friedland JS (eds.) Marcel Dekker: New York, pp 531–556.
  • Benveniste EN (1997b). Role of macrophages/microglia in multiple sclerosis and experimental allergic en-cephalomyelitis. JMo/ Med 75: 165–173.
  • Berberich I, Shu GL, Clark EA (1994). Cross-linking CD40 on B cells rapidly activates nuclear factor-KB. J Immunol 153: 4357–4366.
  • Bettelli E, Das MP, Howard ED, Weiner HL, Sobel RA, Kuchroo VK (1998). IL-10 is critical in the regulation of autoimmune encephalomyelitis as demonstrated by studies of IL-10- and IL-4-deficient and transgenic mice. J Immuno1161: 3299–3306.
  • Bjtirck P, Banchereau J, Flores-Romo L (1997). CD40 ligation counteracts Fas-induced apoptosis of human dendritic cells. Int Immunol 9: 365–372.
  • Bluestone JA (1995). New perspectives of CD28-B7-mediated T cell costimulation. Immunity 2: 555–559.
  • Bonetti B, Pohl J, Gao Y-L, Raine CS (1997). Cell death during autoimmune demyelination: effector but not tar-get cells are eliminated by apoptosis. J Immunol 159: 5733–5741.
  • Boon L, Brok HPM, Bauer J, Ortiz-Buijsse A, Schellekens MM, Ramdien-Murli S, Blezer E, van Meurs M, Ceuppens J, de Boer M, 't Hart BA, Laman JD (2001). Pre-vention of experimental autoimmune encephalomyeli-tis in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) using a chimeric antagonist monoclonal antibody against hu-man CD40 is associated with altered B cell responses. J Immunol 167: 2942–2949.
  • Boss JM (1999). A common set of factors control the expres-sion of the MHC class II, invariant chain, and HLA-DM genes. Microbes Infect 1: 847–853.
  • Brazelton TR, Rossi FMV, Keshet GI, Blau HM (2000). From marrow to brain: expression of neuronal phenotypes in adult mice. Science 290: 1775–1779.
  • Bretscher P, Cohn M (1970). A theory of self-nonself dis-crimination. Science 169: 1042–1049.
  • Calingasan NY, Erdely HA, Altar CA (2002). Identification of CD40 ligand in Alzheimer's disease and in animal models of Alzheimer's disease and brain injury. Neuro-biol Aging 23: 31–39.
  • Carson MJ, Reiley CR, Sutcliffe JG, Lo D (1998). Mature microglia resemble immature antigen-presenting cells. Glia 22: 72–85.
  • Carson MJ, Sutcliffe JG (1999). Balancing function vs. self defense: the CNS as an active regulator of immune re-sponses. J Neurosci Res 55: 1–8.
  • Carson MJ, Sutcliffe JG, Campbell IL (1999). Microglia stim-ulate naive T-cell differentiation without stimulating T-cell proliferation. J Neurosci Res 55: 127–134.
  • Castle BE, Kishimoto K, Stearns C, Brown ML, Kehry MR (1993). Regulation of expression of the ligand for CD40 on T helper lymphocytes. J Immunol 151: 1777–1788.
  • Cella M, Engering A, Pinet V, Pieters J, Lanzavecchia A (1997). Inflammatory stimuli induce accumulation of MHC class II complexes on dendritic cells. Nature 388: 782–787.
  • Chang C-H, Guerder S, Hong S-C, van Ewijk W, Flavell RA (1996). Mice lacking the MHC class II transactivator (CIITA) show tissue-specific impairment of MHC class II expression. Immunity 4: 167–178.
  • Chang C-H, Roys S, Gourley T (1999a). Class II transactiva-tor: is it a master switch for MHC class II gene expres-sion? Microbes Infect 1: 879–885.
  • Chang TT, Jabs C, Sobel RA, Kuchroo VK, Sharpe AH (1999b). Studies in B7-deficient mice reveal a critical role for B7 constimulation in both induction and effector phases of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Exp Med 190: 733–740.
  • Chen LZ, Hochwald GM, Huang C, Dakin G, Tao H, Cheng C, Simmons WJ, Dranoff G, Thorbecke GJ (1998). Gene therapy in allergic encephalomyelitis using myelin ba-sic protein-specific T cells engineered to express latent transforming growth factor-/31. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95: 12516–12521.
  • Chen Y, Inobe J-I, Kuchroo VK, Baron JL, Janeway CA Jr, Weiner HL (1996). Oral tolerance in myelin basic protein T-cell receptor transgenic mice: suppression of autoim-mune encephalomyelitis and dose-dependent induction of regulatory cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93: 388–391.
  • Chen Y, Kuchroo VK, Inobe J, Hailer DA, Weiner HL (1994). Regulatory T cell clones induced by oral tolerance: suppression of autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Science 265: 1237–1240.
  • Chin K-C, Mao C, Skinner C, Riley JL, Wright KL, Moreno CS, Stark GR, Boss JM, Ting JP-Y (1994). Molecular anal-ysis of G1B and G3A IFN-y mutants reveals that defects in CIITA or RFX result in defective class II MHC and Ii gene induction. Immunity 1: 687–697.
  • Collawn J, Benveniste EN (1999). Regulation of MHC class II expression in the central nervous system. Microbes Infect 1: 893–902.
  • Constant SL, Bottomly K (1997). Induction of TH1 and TH2 CD4+ T cell responses: the alternative approaches. Annu Rev Immunol 15: 297–322.
  • Correale J, Gilmore W, McMillan M, Li S, McCarthy K, Le T, Weiner LP (1995). Patterns of cytokine secretion by autoreactive proteolipid protein-specific T cell clones during the course of multiple sclerosis. J Immunol 154: 2959–2968.
  • Coyle AJ, Gutierrez-Ramos JC (2001). The expanding B7 su-perfamily: increasing complexity in costimulatory sig-nals regulating T cell function. Nat Immunol 2: 203–209.
  • Cserr HF, Knopf PM (1992). Cervical lymphatics, the blood-brain barrier and the immunoreactivity of the brain: a new view. Immunol Today 13: 507–512.
  • Cua DJ, Hutchins B, LaFace DM, Stohlman SA, Coffman RL (2001). Central nervous system expression of IL-10 in-hibits autoi=une encephalomyelitis. J Immunol 166: 602–608.
  • D'Aversa TG, Weidenheim KM, Berman JW (2002). CD40-CD4OL interactions induce chemokine expression by human microglia. Am J Pathol 160: 559–567.
  • de Préval C, Grospierre BL, Loche M, Griscelli C, Mach B (1985). A trans-acting class II regulatory gene unlinked to the MHC controls expression of HLA class II genes. Nature 318: 291–293.
  • De Simone R, Giampaolo A, Giometto B, Gallo P, Levi G, Peschle C, Aloisi F (1995). The costimulatory molecule B7 is expressed on human microglia in culture and in multiple sclerosis acute lesions. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 54: 175–187.
  • de Waal Malefyt R, Haanen J, Spits H, Roncarolo M-G, te Velde A, Figdor C, Johnson K, Kastelein R, Yssel H, de Vries JE (1991). Interleukin 10 (IL-10) and vi-ral IL-10 strongly reduce antigen-specific human T cell proliferation by diminishing the antigen-presenting ca-pacity of monocytes via downregulation of class II major histocompatibility complex expression. J Exp Med 174: 915–924.
  • Ding L, Linsley PS, Huang L-Y, Germain RN, Shevach EM (1993). IL-10 inhibits macrophage costimulatory activity by selectively inhibiting the up-regulation of B7 expres-sion. J Immuno1151: 1224–1234.
  • Dong Y, Rohn WM, Benveniste EN (1999). IFN-y regulation of the type IV class II transactivator promoter in astro-cytes. J Immuno1162: 4731–4739.
  • Durand B, Sperisen P, Emery P, B arras E, Zufferey M, Mach B, Reith W (1997). RFXAP, a novel subunit of the RFX DNA binding complex is mutated in MHC class II defi-ciency. EMBO J16: 1045–1055.
  • Eglitis MA, Mezey E (1997). Hematopoietic cells differen-tiate into both microglia and macroglia in the brains of adult mice. Proc Nati Acad Sci USA 94: 4080–4085.
  • Falcone M, Rajan AJ, Bloom BR, Brosnan CF (1998). A crit-ical role for IL-4 in regulating disease severity in ex-perimental allergic encephalomyelitis as demonstrated in IL-4-deficient C57BL/6 mice and BALB/c mice. J Immuno1160: 4822–4830.
  • Fikrig E, Barthold SW, Chen M, Chang C-H, Flavell RA (1997). Protective antibodies develop, and murine Lyme arthritis regresses, in the absence of MHC class II and CD4+ T cells. J Immunol 159: 5682–5686.
  • Fong TC, Wu Y, Kipps TJ (1996). Identification of a pro-moter element that regulates tissue-specific expression of the human CD80 (B7.1) gene. J Immunol 157: 4442–4250.
  • Fontes JD, Kanazawa S, Nekrep N, Peterlin BM (1999). The class II transactivator CIITA is a transcriptional integra-tor. Microbes Infect 1: 863–869.
  • Ford AL, Foulcher E, Lemckert FA, Sedgwick JD (1996). Mi-croglia induce CD4 T lymphocyte final effector function and death. J Exp Med 184: 1737–1745.
  • Ford AL, Goodsall AL, Hickey WF, Sedgwick JD (1995). Normal adult ramified microglia separated from other central nervous system macrophages by flow cytometric sorting. J Immuno1154: 4309–4321.
  • Foy TM, Aruffo A, Bajorath J, Buhlmann JE, Noelle RJ (1996). Immune regulation by CD40 and its ligand GP39. Annu Rev Immunol 14: 591–617.
  • Freeman GJ, Boussiotis VA, Anumanthan A, Bernstein GM, Ke X-Y, Rennert PD, Gray GS, Gribben JG, Nadler LM (1995). B7-1 and B7-2 do not deliver identical costim-ulatory signals, since B7-2 but not B7-1 preferentially costimulates the initial production of IL-4. Immunity 2: 523–532.
  • Frei K, Lins H, Schwerdel C, Fontana A (1994). Antigen pre-sentation in the central nervous system: the inhibitory effect of IL-10 on MHC class II expression and pro-duction of cytokines depends on the inducing signals and the type of cell analyzed. J Immunol 152: 2720–2728.
  • Frei K, Siepl C, Groscurth P, Bodmer S, Schwerdel C, Fontana A (1987). Antigen presentation and tumor cy-totoxicity by interferon-g-treated microglial cells. Eur J Immunol 17: 1271–1278.
  • Fukaura H, Kent SC, Pietrusewicz MJ, Khoury SJ, Weiner HL, Hafler DA (1996). Induction of circulating myelin basic protein and proteolipid protein-specific transform-ing growth factor-/3 1-secreting Th3 T cells by oral ad-ministration of myelin in multiple sclerosis patients. J Clin Invest 98: 70–77.
  • Gerritse K, Laman JD, Noelle RJ, Aruffo A, Ledbetter JA, Boersma WJA, Claassen E (1996). CD4O-CD40 ligand interactions in experimental allergic encephalomyeli-tis and multiple sclerosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93: 2499–2504.
  • Grakoui A, Bromley SK, Sumen C, Davis MM, Shaw AS, Allen PM, Dustin ML (1999). The immunological synapse: a molecular machine controlling T cell activa-tion. Science 285: 221–227.
  • Grewal I, Foellmer H, Grewal K, Xu J, Hardardottir F, Baron J, Janeway C, Flavell R (1996). Requirement for CD40 ligand in costimulation induction, T cell activation, and experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Science 273: 1864–1867.
  • Grewal IS, Flavell RA (1998). CD40 and CD154 in cell-mediated immunity. Annu Rev Immunol 16: 111–135.
  • Grusby MJ, Glimcher LH (1995). Immune responses in MHC class II-deficient mice. Annu Rev Immunol 13: 417–435.
  • Hickey WF, Hsu BL, Kimura H (1991). T-lymphocyte entry into the central nervous system. J Neurosci Res 28: 254–260.
  • Hickey WF, Kimura H (1988). Perivascular microglial cells of the CNS are bone marrow-derived and present antigen in vivo. Science 239: 290–292.
  • Howard LM, Miga AJ, Vanderlugt CL, Dal Canto MC, Laman JD, Noelle RJ, Miller SD (1999). Mechanisms of im-munotherapeutic intervention by anti-CD4OL (CD154) antibody in an animal model of multiple sclerosis. J Clin Invest 103: 281–290.
  • Howard LM, Ostrovidov S, Smith CE, Dal Canto MC, Miller SD (2002). Normal Th1 development following long-term therapeutic blockade of CD154-CD40 in experi-mental autoi=une encephalomyelitis. J Clin Invest 109: 233–241.
  • Iglesias BM, Cerase J, Ceracchini C, Levi G, Aloisi F (1997). Analysis of B7-1 and B7-2 costimulatory ligands in cultured mouse microglia: upregulation by interferon-y and lipopolysaccharide and downregula-tion by interleukin-10, prostaglandin E2 and cyclic AMP-elevating agents. J Neuroimmunol 72: 83–93.
  • Issazadeh S, Navikas V, Schaub M, Sayegh M, Khoury S (1998). Kinetics of expression of costimulatory molecules and their ligands in murine relapsing ex-perimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in vivo. J Immunol 161: 1104–1112.
  • Karandikar NJ, Vanderlugt CL, Walunas TL, Miller SD, Bluestone JA (1996). CTLA-4: a negative regulator of au-toimmune disease. J Exp Med 184: 783–788.
  • Katz-Levy Y, Neville KL, Girvin AM, Vanderlugt CL, Pope JG, Tan LJ, Miller SD (1999). Endogenous presenta-tion of self myelin epitopes by CNS-resident APCs in Theiler's virus-infected mice. J Clin Invest 104: 599–610.
  • Kennedy MK, Picha KS, Fanslow WC, Grabstein KH, Alderson MR, Clifford KN, Chin WA, Mohler KM (1996). CD40/CD40 ligand interactions are required for T cell-dependent production of interleukin-12 by mouse macrophages. Eur J Immunol 26: 370–378.
  • Koppelman B, Neefies JJ, de Vries JE, de Waal Malefyt R (1997). Interleukin-10 down-regulates MHC class II a 13 peptide complexes at the plasma membrane of mono-cytes by affecting arrival and recycling. Immunity 7: 861–871.
  • Koppi TA, Tough-Bement T, Lewinsohn DM, Lynch DH, Alderson MR (1997). CD40 ligand inhibits Fast CD95-mediated apoptosis of human blood-derived den-dritic cells. Eur J Immunol 27: 3161–3165.
  • Krakowski ML, Owens T (1997). The central nervous sys-tem environment controls effector CD4+ T cell cytokine profile in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Eur J Immunol 27: 2840–2847.
  • Krakowski ML, Owens T (2000). Naive T lymphocytes traf-fic to infla=ed central nervous system, but require antigen recognition for activation. Eur J Immunol 30: 1002–1009.
  • Kretsovali A, Agalioti T, Spilianakis C, Tzortzakaki E, Merika M, Papamatheakis J (1998). Involvement of CREB binding protein in expression of major histocompatibil-ity complex class II genes via interaction with the class II transactivator. Mol Cell Biol 18: 6777–6783.
  • Kreutzberg GW (1996). Microglia: a sensor for pathological events in the CNS. Trends Neurosci 19: 312–318.
  • Kuchroo VK, Das MP, Brown JA, Ranger AM, Zamvil SS, Sobel RA, Weiner HL, Nabavi N, Glimcher LH (1995). B7-1 and B7-2 costimulatory molecules activate differ-entially the Th1/Th2 developmental pathways: appli-cation to autoi=une disease therapy. Cell 80: 707–718.
  • Kuprash DV, Udalova IA, Turetskaya RL, Rice NR, Nedospasov SA (1995). Conserved KB element located downstream of the tumor necrosis factor a gene: dis-tinct NF-KB binding pattern and enhancer activity in LPS activated murine macrophages. Oncogene 11: 97–106.
  • Laman JD, van Meurs M, Schellekens MM, de Boer M, Melchers B, Massacesi L, Lassmann H, Claassen E, 't Hart BA (1998). Expression of accessory molecules and cytokines in acute EAE in marmoset monkeys (Callithrix jacchus). J Neuroimmunol 86: 30–45.
  • Landmann S, Miihlethaler-Mottet A, Bernasconi L, Suter T, Waldburger J-M, Masternak K, Arrighi J-F, Hauser C, Fontana A, Reith W (2001). Maturation of dendritic cells is accompanied by rapid transcriptional silencing of class II transactivator (CIITA) expression. J Exp Med 194: 379–391.
  • Lanzavecchia A (1997). Understanding the mechanisms of sustained signaling and T cell activation. J Exp Med 185: 1717–1719.
  • Lee K-M, Chuang E, Griffin M, Khattri R, Hong DK, Zhang W, Straus D, Samelson LE, Thompson CB, Bluestone JA (1998). Molecular basis of T cell inactivationby CTLA-4. Science 282: 2263–2266.
  • Lee SJ, Zhou T, Choi C, Wang Z, Benveniste EN (2000). Differential regulation and function of Fas expression on glial cells. J. Immunol 164: 1277–1285.
  • Lee Y-J, Han Y, Lu H-T, Nguyen V, Qin H, Howe PH, Hocevar BA, Boss JM, Ransohoff RM, Benveniste EN (1997). TGF-/3 suppresses IFN-y induction of class II MHC gene expression by inhibiting class II transactiva-tor messenger RNA expression. J Immunol 158: 2065–2075.
  • Lenschow DJ, Walunas TL, Bluestone JA (1996). CD28/B7 system of T cell costimulation. Annu Rev Immunol 14: 233–258.
  • Léveillé C, Chandad F, Al-Daccak R, Mourad W (1999). CD40 associated with the MHC class II molecules on human B cells. Eur J Immunol 29: 3516–3526.
  • Li J, Colovai Al, Cortesini R, Suciu-Foca N (2000). Cloning and functional characterization of the 5'-regulatory re-gion of the human CD86 gene. Hum Immunol 61: 486–498.
  • Li J, Liu Z, Jiang S, Cortesini R, Lederman S, Suciu-Foca N (1999). T suppressor lymphocytes inhibit NF-KB-mediated transcription of CD86 gene in APC. I Immunol 163: 6386–6392.
  • Lu H-T, Riley JL, Babcock GT, Huston M, Stark GR, Boss JM, Ransohoff RM (1995). Interferon (IFN) /3 acts down-stream of IFN-y-induced class II transactivator messen-ger RNA accumulation to block major histocompatibil-ity complex class II gene expression and requires the 48-kD DNA-binding protein, ISGF3-y. J Exp Med 182: 1517–1525.
  • MacDonald KPA, Nishioka Y, Lipsky PE, Thomas R (1997). Functional CD40 ligand is expressed by T cells in rheumatoid arthritis. J Clin Invest 100: 2404–2414.
  • Mach B, Steimle V, Martinez-Soria E, Reith W (1996). Reg-ulation of MHC class II genes: lessons from a disease. Annu Rev Immunol 14: 301–331.
  • Maity SN, de Crombrugghe B (1998). Role of the CCAAT-binding protein CBF/NF-Y in transcription. Trends Biochem Sci 23: 174–178.
  • Marine J-C, Topham DJ, McKay C, Wang D, Parganas E, Stravopodis D, Yoshimura A, Ihle JN (1999). SOCS1 defi-ciency causes a lymphocyte-dependent perinatal lethal-ity. Cell 98: 609–616.
  • Mastemak K, Barras E, Zufferey M, Conrad B, Corthals G, Aebersold R, Sanchez J-C, Hochstrasser DF, Mach B, Reith W (1998). A gene encoding a novel RFX-associated transactivator is mutated in the majority of MHC class II deficiency patients. Nat Genet 20: 273–277.
  • Mastemak K, Muhlethaler-Mottet A, Villard J, Zufferey M, Steimle V, Reith W (2000). CIITA is a transcriptional coactivator that is recruited to MHC class II promoters by multiple synergistic interactions with an enhanceo-some complex. Genes Dev 14: 1156–1166.
  • McDyer JF, Goletz TJ, Thomas E, June CH, Seder RA (1998). CD40 ligand/CD40 stimulation regulates the production of IFN-y from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells in an IL-12-and/or CD28-dependent manner. J Im-muno1160: 1701–1707.
  • Merrill JE, Benveniste EN (1996). Cytokines in inflamma-tory brain lesions: helpful and harmful. Trends Neurosci 19: 331–338.
  • Mezey E, Chandross KJ, Harta G, Maki RA, McKercher SR (2000). Turning blood into brain: cells bearing neuronal antigens generated in vivo from bone marrow. Science 290: 1779–1782.
  • Monks CRF, Freiberg BA, Kupfer H, Sclaky N, Kupfer A (1998). Three-dimensional segregation of supramolecu-lar activation clusters in T cells. Nature 395: 82–86.
  • Moreno CS, Beresford GW, Louis-Plence P, Morris AC, Boss JM (1999). CREB regulates MHC class II expression in a CIITA-dependent manner. Immunity 10: 143–151.
  • Muhlethaler-Mottet A, Di Berardino W, Otten LA, Mach B (1998). Activation of the MHC class II transactivator CIITA by interferon-y requires cooperative interaction between Stat1 and USF-1. Immunity 8: 157–166.
  • Muhlethaler-Mottet A, Otten LA, Steimle V, Mach B (1997). Expression of MHC class II molecules in different cellu-lar and functional compartments is controlled by differ-ential usage of multiple promoters of the transactivator CIITA. EMBO J16: 2851–2860.
  • Naka T, Matsumoto T, Narazaki M, Fujimoto M, Morita Y, Ohsawa Y, Saito H, Nagasawa T, Uchiyama Y, Kishimoto T (1998). Accelerated apoptosis of lymphocytes by aug-mented induction of Bax in 55I-1 (STAT-induced STAT inhibitor-1) deficient mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95: 15577–15582.
  • Naka T, Narazaki M, Hirata M, Matsumoto T, Minamoto S, Aono A, Nishimoto N, Kajita T, Taga T, Yoshizaki K, Akira S, Kishimoto T (1997). Structure and function of a new STAT-induced STAT inhibitor. Nature 387: 924–929.
  • Nathanson JA (1989). The blood-cerebrospinal fluid bar-rier as an immune surveillance system: functions of the choroid plexus. PNEI 2: 96–101.
  • Neumann H, Misgeld T, Matsumuro K, Wekerle H (1998). Neurotrophins inhibit major histocompatibility class II inducibility of microglia: involvement of the p75 neu-rotrophin receptor. Proc Nati Acad Sci USA 95: 5779–5784.
  • Nguyen V, Benveniste EN (2000a). Interleukin-4 activated STAT-6 inhibits IFN-y induced CD40 gene expression in macrophage s/microglia. J Immunol 165: 6235–6243.
  • Nguyen VT, Benveniste EN (2000b). Involvement of STAT-1c t and ets family members in interferon-y induction of CD40 transcription in macrophages/microglia. J Biol Chem 271: 23674–23684.
  • Nguyen VT, Benveniste EN (2002). Critical role of TNF-ot and NF-KB in IFN-y-induced CD40 expression in microglia/macrophages. J Biol Chem 277: 13796–13803.
  • Nguyen V, Walker WS, Benveniste EN (1998). Post-transcriptional inhibition of CD40 gene expression in microglia by transforming growth factor-/3. Eur J Im-munol 28: 2537–2548.
  • Nikcevich KM, Piskurich JF, Hellendall RP, Wang Y, Ting JP-Y (1999). Differential selectivity of CIITA pro-moter activation by IFN-y and IRF-1 in astrocytes and macrophages: CIITA promoter activation is not affected by TNF-ot. jNeuroimmunol 99: 195–204.
  • O'Keefe GM, Nguyen VT, Benveniste EN (1999). Class II transactivator and class II MHC gene expression in microglia: modulation by the cytokines TGF-/3, IL-4, IL-13, and IL-10. Eur j Immunol 29: 1275–1285.
  • O'Keefe GM, Nguyen VT, Tang LP, Benveniste EN (2001). IFN-y regulation of class II transactivator promoter IV in macrophages and microglia: involvement of the sup-pressors of cytokine signaling-1 protein. J Immuno1166: 2260–2269.
  • Otten LA, Steimle V, Bontron S, Mach B (1998). Quantita-tive control of MHC class II expression by the transacti-vator CIITA. Eur j Immunol 28: 473–478.
  • Owens T, Renno T, Taupin V, Krakowski M (1994). Inflam-matory cytokines in the brain: does the CNS shape im-mune responses? Immunol Today 15: 566–571.
  • Owens T, Wekerle H, Antel J (2001). Genetic models for CNS inflammation. Nat Med 7: 161–166.
  • Paludan SR (1998). Interleukin-4 and Interferon-y: the quintessence of a mutual antagonistic relationship. Scand J Immunol 48: 459–468.
  • Perry VH (1998). A revised view of the central nervous system microenvironment and major histocompatibility complex class II antigen presentation. J Neuroimmunol 90: 113–121.
  • Pieters J (1997). MHC class II restricted antigen presenta-tion. Curr Opin Immunol 9: 89–96.
  • Piskurich JF, Linhoff MW, Wang Y, Ting JP-Y (1999). Two distinct gamma interferon-inducible promoters of the major histocompatibility complex class II transactivator gene are differentially regulated by STAT1, interferon regulatory factor 1, and transforming growth factor /3. Mol Cell Biol 19: 431–440.
  • Piskurich JF, Wang Y, Linhoff MW, White LC, Ting JP-Y (1998). Identification of distinct regions of 5' flank-ing DNA that mediate constitutive, IFN-y, STAT1, and TGF-/3-regulated expression of the class II transactivator gene. J Immuno1160: 233–240.
  • Pope JG, Vanderlugt CL, Rahbe SM, Lipton HL, Miller SD (1998). Characterization of and functional antigen presentation by central nervous system mononuclear cells from mice infected with Theiler's murine en-cephalomyelitis virus. J Virol 72: 7762–7771.
  • Racke MK, Scott DE, Quigley L, Gray GS, Abe R, June CH, Perrin PJ (1995). Distinct roles for B7-1 (CD-80) and B7-2 (CD-86) in the initiation of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J Clin Invest 96: 2195–2203.
  • Reiss Y, Hoch G, Deutsch U, Engelhardt B (1998). T cell in-teraction with ICAM-1-deficient endothelium in vitro: essential role for ICAM-1 and ICAM-2 in transendothe-lial migration of T cells. Eur J Immunol 28: 3086–3099.
  • Reith W, Muhlethaler-Mottet A, Masternak K, Villard J, Mach B (1999). The molecular basis of MHC class II de-ficiency and transcriptional control of MHC class II gene expression. Microbes Infect 1: 839–846.
  • Rohn WM, Lee Y-J, Benveniste EN (1996). Regulation of class II MHC expression. Grit Rev Immunol 16: 311–330.
  • Romagnani S (1997). The Th1/Th2 paradigm. Immunol Today 18: 263–266.
  • Saito H, Morita Y, Fujimoto M, Narazaki M, Naka T, Kishmoto T (2000). IFN regulatory factor-1-mediated transcriptional activation of mouse STAT-induced STAT inhibitor-1 gene promoter by IFN-y. J Immunol 164: 5833–5843.
  • Samoilova EB, Horton JL, Zhang H, Chen Y (1997). CD4OL blockade prevents autoi=une encephalomyelitis and hampers TH1 but not TH2 pathway of T cell differenti-ation. JMo/ Med 75: 603–608.
  • Santambrogio L, Hochwald GM, Saxena B, Leu C-H, Martz JE, Carlino JA, Ruddle NH, Palladino MA, Gold LI, Thorbecke GJ (1993). Studies on the mechanisms by which transforming growth factor-/3 (TGF-/3) protects against allergic encephalomyelitis: antagonism between TGF-/3 and tumor necrosis factor. J Immunol 151: 1116–1127.
  • Schönbeck U, Libby P (2001). The CD40/CD154 recep-tor/ligand dyad. Cell Mol Life Sci 58: 4–43.
  • Schwartz RH (1996). Models of T cell anergy: is there a common molecular mechanism? J Exp Med 184: 1–8.
  • Seder RA, Marth T, Sieve MC, Strober W, Letterio JJ, Roberts AB, Kelsall B (1998). Factors involved in the differentia-tion of TGF-/3-producing cells from naive CD4+ T cells: IL-4 and IFN-y have opposing effects, while TGF-/3 pos-itively regulates its own production. J Immunol 160: 5719–5728.
  • Seder RA, Paul VVE (1994). Acquisition of lymphokine-producing phenotype by CD4+ T cells. Ann Rev Im-munol 12: 635–673.
  • Shaw AS, Dustin ML (1997). Making the T cell receptor go the distance: a topological view of T cell activation. Immunity 6: 361–369.
  • Shaw MK, Lorens JB, Dhawan A, DalCanto R, Tse HY, Tran AB, Bonpane C, Eswaran SL, Brocke S, Sarvetnick N, Steinman L, Nolan GP, Fathman CG (1997). Local delivery of interleukin 4 by retrovirus-transduced T lymphocytes ameliorates experimental autoi=une en-cephalomyelitis. J Exp Med 185: 1711–1714.
  • Shrikant P, Benveniste EN (1996). The central nervous sys-tem as an i=unocompetent organ: role of glial cells in antigen presentation. J Immunol 157: 1819–1822.
  • Starr R, Metcalf D, Elefanty AG, Brysha M, Willson TA, Nicola NA, Hilton DJ, Alexander WS (1998). Liver de-generation and lymphoid deficiencies in mice lacking suppressor of cytokine signaling-1. Proc Nati Acad Sci USA 95: 14395–14399.
  • Steimle V, Durand B, Barras E, Zufferey M, Hadam MR, Mach B, Reith W (1995). A novel DNA-binding regula-tory factor is mutated in primary MHC class II deficiency (bare lymphocyte syndrome). Genes Dev 9: 1021–1032.
  • Steimle V, Otten LA, Zufferey M, Mach B (1993). Comple-mentation cloning of an MHC class II transactivator mu-tated in hereditary MHC class II deficiency (or bare lym-phocyte syndrome). Cell 75: 135–146.
  • Steimle V, Siegrist C-A, Mottet A, Lisowska-Grospierre B, Mach B (1994). Regulation of MHC class II expression by interferon-y mediated by the transactivator gene CIITA. Science 265: 106–109.
  • Steinman L (1996). Multiple sclerosis: a coordinated im-munological attack against myelin in the central nervous system. Cell 85: 299–302.
  • Swanborg RH (1995). Experimental autoimmune en-cephalomyelitis in rodents as a model for human de-myelinating disease. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 77: 4–13.
  • Tan J, Town T, Mori T, Obregon D, Wu Y, DelleDonne A, Rojiani A, Crawford F, Flavell RA, Mullan M (2002). CD40 is expressed and functional on neuronal cells. EMBO J21: 643–652.
  • Tan J, Town T, Paris D, Mori T, Suo Z, Crawford F, Mattson MP, Flavell RA, Mullan M (1999). Microglial activation resulting from CD4O-CD4OL interaction after /3-amyloid stimulation. Science 286: 2352–2355.
  • Taniguchi T, Minami Y (1993). The IL-2/IL-2 receptor sys-tem: a current overview. Cell 73: 5–8.
  • Ting JP-Y, Zhu X-S (1999). Class II MHC genes: a model gene regulatory system with great biologic consequences. Microbes Infect 1: 855–861.
  • Togo T, Akiyama H, Kondo H, Ikeda K, Kato M, Iseki E, Kosaka K (2000). Expression of CD40 in the brain of Alzheimer's disease and other neurological diseases. Brain Res 885: 117–121.
  • Torres RM, Clark EA (1992). Differential increase of an alter-natively polyadenylated mRNA species of murine CD40 upon B lymphocyte activation. J Immunol 148: 620–626.
  • van Kooten C, Banchereau J (1997). Functions of CD40 on B cells, dendritic cells and other cells. Curr Opin Cell Bio19: 330–337.
  • van Kooten C, Banchereau J (2000). CD4O-CD40 ligand. J Leukoc Biol 67: 2–17.
  • Vincenti MP, Burrell TA, Taffet SM (1992). Regulation of NF-KB activity in murine macrophages: effect of bacte-rial lipopolysaccharide and phorbol ester. J Cell Physiol 150: 204–213.
  • Waldburger JM, Suter T, Fontana A, Acha-Orbea H, Reith W (2001). Selective abrogation of major histocompatibility complex class II expression on extrahematopoietic cells in mice lacking promoter IV of the class II transactivator gene. J Exp Med 194: 393–406.
  • Wei R, Jonakait GM (1999). Neurotrophins and the anti-inflammatory agents interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-10, IL-11 and transforming growth factor-/31 (TGF-/31) down-regulate T cell costimulatory molecules B7 and CD40 on cultured rat microglia. J Neuroimmunol 95: 8–18.
  • Wesemann D, Dong Y, O'Keefe GM, Nguyen VT, Benveniste EN (2002). Suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS-1) inhibits cytokine induction CD40 expression in macrophages. J Immunol 169: 2354–2360.
  • Williams K, Ulvestad E, Antel JP (1994). B7/BB-1 antigen expression on adult human microglia studied in vitro and in situ. Eur Immunol 24: 3031–3037.
  • Winghagen A, Newcombe J, Dangond F, Strand C, Woodroofe MN, Cuzner ML, Hafler DA (1995). Ex-pression of costimulatory molecules B7-1 (CD80), B7-2 (CD86), and interleukin 12 cytokine in multiple sclero-sis lesions. J Exp Med 182: 1985–1996.
  • Windhagen A, Nicholson LB, Weiner HL, Kuchroo VK, Hailer DA (1996). Role of Th1 and Th2 cells in neuro-logic disorders. Chem Immunol 63: 171–186.
  • Yasukawa H, Saski A, Yoshimura A (2000). Negative regula-tion of cytokine signaling pathways. Annu Rev Immunol 18: 143–164.
  • Yu M, Nishiyama A, Trapp BD, Tuohy VK (1996). Interferon-/3 inhibits progression of relapsing-remitting experimental autoi=une encephalomyelitis. J Neuro-immunol 64: 91–100.
  • Zhao B, Schwartz JP (1998). Involvement of cytokines in normal CNS development and neurological diseases: recent progress and perspectives. J Neurosci Res 52: 7–16.
  • Zhao J, Freeman GJ, Gray GS, Nadler LM, Glimcher LH (1996). A cell type-specific enhancer in the human B7.1 gene regulated by NF-KB. J Exp Med 183: 777–789.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.