516
Views
31
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original

Nosocomial fungal infections: epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment

, &
Pages 321-346 | Received 26 Sep 2006, Published online: 09 Jul 2009

References

  • Wilson LS, Reyes CM, Stolpman M, et al. The direct cost and incidence of systemic fungal infections. Value Health 2002; 5: 26–34
  • Jarvis WR. Epidemiology of nosocomial fungal infections, with emphasis on Candida species. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 20: 1526–1530
  • Jarvis WR, Martone WJ. Predominant pathogens in hospital infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 1992; 29 Suppl A: 19–24.
  • Nucci M, Pulcheri W, Spector N, et al. Fungal infections in neutropenic patients. An 8-year prospective study. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 1995; 37: 397–406
  • Kanamaru A, Tatsumi Y. Microbiological data for patients with febrile neutropenia. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39(Suppl. 1)S7–S10
  • Rees JR, Pinner RW, Hajjeh RA, Brandt ME, Reingold AL. The epidemiological features of invasive mycotic infections in the San Francisco Bay area, 1992–1993: results of population-based laboratory active surveillance. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 27: 1138–1147
  • Wajszczuk CP, Dummer JS, Ho M, et al. Fungal infections in liver transplant recipients. Transplantation 1985; 40: 347–353
  • Baddley JW, Stroud TP, Salzman D, Pappas PG. Invasive mold infections in allogeneic bone marrow transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32: 1319–1324
  • Marr KA, Carter RA, Crippa F, Wald A, Corey L. Epidemiology and outcome of mould infections in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34: 909–917
  • Hibberd PL, Rubin RH. Clinical aspects of fungal infection in organ transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 1994; 19(Suppl. 1)S33–40
  • Edmond MB, Wallace SE, McClish DK, et al. Nosocomial bloodstream infections in United States hospitals: a three-year analysis. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29: 239–244
  • Rangel–Frausto MS, Wiblin T, Blumberg HM, et al. National epidemiology of mycoses survey (NEMIS): variations in rates of bloodstream infections due to Candida species in seven surgical intensive care units and six neonatal intensive care units. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29: 253–258
  • Wisplinghoff H, Bischoff T, Tallent SM, et al. Nosocomial bloodstream infections in US hospitals: analysis of 24,179 cases from a prospective nationwide surveillance study. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39: 309–317
  • Wisplinghoff H, Seifert H, Tallent SM, et al. Nosocomial bloodstream infections in pediatric patients in United States hospitals: epidemiology, clinical features and susceptibilities. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2003; 22: 686–691
  • Wisplinghoff H, Seifert H, Wenzel RP, Edmond MB. Current trends in the epidemiology of nosocomial bloodstream infections in patients with hematological malignancies and solid neoplasms in hospitals in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 36: 1103–1110
  • Kami M, Machida U, Okuzumi K, et al. Effect of fluconazole prophylaxis on fungal blood cultures: an autopsy-based study involving 720 patients with haematological malignancy. Br J Haematol 2002; 117: 40–46
  • Berenguer J, Buck M, Witebsky F, et al. Lysis–centrifugation blood cultures in the detection of tissue-proven invasive candidiasis. Disseminated versus single-organ infection. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1993; 17: 103–109
  • Kao AS, Brandt ME, Pruitt WR, et al. The epidemiology of candidemia in two United States cities: results of a population–based active surveillance. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29: 1164–1170
  • Hajjeh RA, Sofair AN, Harrison LH, et al. Incidence of bloodstream infections due to Candida species and in vitro susceptibilities of isolates collected from 1998 to 2000 in a population-based active surveillance program. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 1519–1527
  • Zaoutis TE, Argon J, Chu J, et al. The epidemiology and attributable outcomes of candidemia in adults and children hospitalized in the United States: a propensity analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 1232–1239
  • Fraser VJ, Jones M, Dunkel J, et al. Candidemia in a tertiary care hospital: epidemiology, risk factors, and predictors of mortality. Clin Infect Dis 1992; 15: 414–421
  • Karlowsky JA, Zhanel GG, Klym KA, Hoban DJ, Kabani AM. Candidemia in a Canadian tertiary care hospital from 1976 to 1996. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1977; 29: 5–9
  • Kossoff EH, Buescher ES, Karlowicz MG. Candidemia in a neonatal intensive care unit: trends during fifteen years and clinical features of 111 cases. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1998; 17: 504–508
  • Kullberg BJ, Oude Lashof AM. Epidemiology of opportunistic invasive mycoses. Eur J Med Res 2002; 7: 183–191
  • Pfaller MA. Epidemiology of candidiasis. J Hosp Infect 1995; 30(Suppl)329–38
  • Richet HM, Andremont A, Tancrede C, Pico JL, Jarvis WR. Risk factors for candidemia in patients with acute lymphocytic leukemia. Rev Infect Dis 1991; 13: 211–215
  • Hope W, Morton A, Eisen DP. Increase in prevalence of nosocomial non-Candida albicans candidaemia and the association of Candida krusei with fluconazole use. J Hosp Infect 2002; 50: 56–65
  • Sendid B, Cotteau A, Francois N, et al. Candidaemia and antifungal therapy in a French University Hospital: rough trends over a decade and possible links. BMC Infect Dis 2006; 6: 80
  • Morgan J. Global trends in candidemia: review of reports from 1995–2005. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2005; 7: 429–439
  • Albrecht SJ, Fishman NO, Kitchen J, et al. Reemergence of gram-negative health care-associated bloodstream infections. Arch Intern Med 2006; 166: 1289–1294
  • Bassetti M, Righi E, Costa A, et al. Epidemiological trends in nosocomial candidemia in intensive care. BMC Infect Dis 2006; 6: 21
  • Sandven P, Bevanger L, Digranes A, et al. Candidemia in Norway (1991 to 2003): results from a nationwide study. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44: 1977–1981
  • Luzzati R, Amalfitano G, Lazzarini L, et al. Nosocomial candidemia in non-neutropenic patients at an Italian tertiary care hospital. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2000; 19: 602–607
  • Nolla–Salas J, Sitges–Serra A, Leon–Gil C, et al. Candidemia in non-neutropenic critically ill patients: analysis of prognostic factors and assessment of systemic antifungal therapy. Study Group of Fungal Infection in the ICU. Intensive Care Med 1997; 23: 23–30
  • Rennert G, Rennert HS, Pitlik S, Finkelstein R, Kitzes-Cohen R. Epidemiology of candidemia – a nationwide survey in Israel. Infection 2000; 28: 26–29
  • Wright WL, Wenzel RP. Nosocomial Candida. Epidemiology, transmission, and prevention. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1997; 11: 411–425
  • Alonso-Valle H, Acha O, Garcia-Palomo JD, et al. Candidemia in a tertiary care hospital: epidemiology and factors influencing mortality. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2003; 22: 254–257
  • Baran J, Jr, Muckatira B, Khatib R. Candidemia before and during the fluconazole era: prevalence, type of species and approach to treatment in a tertiary care community hospital. Scand J Infect Dis 2001; 33: 137–139
  • Borzotta AP, Beardsley K. Candida infections in critically ill trauma patients: a retrospective case-control study. Arch Surg 1999; 134: 657–664; discussion 664–665.
  • Bross J, Talbot GH, Maislin G, Hurwitz S, Strom BL. Risk factors for nosocomial candidemia: a case-control study in adults without leukemia. Am J Med 1989; 87: 614–620
  • Debusk CH, Daoud R, Thirumoorthi MC, Wilson FM, Khatib R. Candidemia: current epidemiologic characteristics and a long-term follow-up of the survivors. Scand J Infect Dis 1994; 26: 697–703
  • McKinnon PS, Goff DA, Kern JW, , et al Temporal assessment of Candida risk factors in the surgical intensive care unit. Arch Surg 2001; 136: 1401–1408; discussion 1409.
  • Charles PE, Doise JM, Quenot JP, et al. Candidemia in critically ill patients: difference of outcome between medical and surgical patients. Intensive Care Med 2003; 29: 2162–2169
  • Peman J, Canton E, Gobernado M. Epidemiology and antifungal susceptibility of Candida species isolated from blood: results of a 2-year multicentre study in Spain. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2005; 24: 23–30
  • Almirante B, Rodriguez D, Park BJ, et al. Epidemiology and predictors of mortality in cases of Candida bloodstream infection: results from population-based surveillance, barcelona, Spain, from 2002 to 2003. J Clin Microbiol 2002; 43: 1829–1835
  • Karabinis A, Hill C, Leclercq B, et al. Risk factors for candidemia in cancer patients: a case-control study. J Clin Microbiol 1988; 26: 429–432
  • Martino P, Girmenia C, Micozzi A, et al. Fungemia in patients with leukemia. Am J Med Sci 1993; 306: 225–232
  • Pagano L, Antinori A, Ammassari A, et al. Retrospective study of candidemia in patients with hematological malignancies. Clinical features, risk factors and outcome of 76 episodes. Eur J Haematol 1999; 63: 77–85
  • Marr KA, Seidel K, White TC, Bowden RA. Candidemia in allogeneic blood and marrow transplant recipients: evolution of risk factors after the adoption of prophylactic fluconazole. J Infect Dis 2000; 181: 309–316
  • Martino P, Girmenia C, Venditti M, et al. Candida colonization and systemic infection in neutropenic patients. A retrospective study. Cancer 1989; 64: 2030–2034
  • Tran LT, Auger P, Marchand R, Carrier M, Pelletier C. Epidemiological study of Candida spp. colonization in cardiovascular surgical patients. Mycoses 1997; 40: 169–173
  • Vargas KG, Joly S. Carriage frequency, intensity of carriage, and strains of oral yeast species vary in the progression to oral candidiasis in human immunodeficiency virus–positive individuals. J Clin Microbiol 2002; 40: 341–350
  • Pittet D, Monod M, Suter PM, Frenk E, Auckenthaler R. Candida colonization and subsequent infections in critically ill surgical patients. Ann Surg 1994; 220: 751–758
  • Voss A, Hollis RJ, Pfaller MA, Wenzel RP, Doebbeling BN. Investigation of the sequence of colonization and candidemia in nonneutropenic patients. J Clin Microbiol 1994; 32: 975–980
  • Marco F, Lockhart SR, Pfaller MA, et al. Elucidating the origins of nosocomial infections with Candida albicans by DNA fingerprinting with the complex probe Ca3. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37: 2817–2828
  • Klempp-Selb B, Rimek D, Kappe R. Karyotyping of Candida albicans and Candida glabrata from patients with Candida sepsis. Mycoses 2000; 43: 159–163
  • Daniels W, Glover DD, Essmann M, Larsen B. Candidiasis during pregnancy may result from isogenic commensal strains. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2001; 9: 65–73
  • Eggimann P, Francioli P, Bille J, et al. Fluconazole prophylaxis prevents intra–abdominal candidiasis in high-risk surgical patients. Crit Care Med 1999; 27: 1066–1072
  • Rotrosen D, Calderone RA, Edwards JE, Jr. Adherence of Candida species to host tissues and plastic surfaces. Rev Infect Dis 1986; 8: 73–85
  • Douglas LJ. Adhesion of Candida species to epithelial surfaces. Crit Rev Microbiol 1987; 15: 27–43
  • Kiehn TE, Edwards FF, Armstrong D. The prevalence of yeasts in clinical specimens from cancer patients. Am J Clin Pathol 1980; 73: 518–521
  • Marsh PK, Tally FP, Kellum J, Callow A, Gorbach SL. Candida infections in surgical patients. Ann Surg 1983; 198: 42–47
  • Safdar A, Chaturvedi V, Cross EW, et al. Prospective study of Candida species in patients at a comprehensive cancer center. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45: 2129–2133
  • Lehrer N, Segal E, Barr–Nea L. In vitro and in vivo adherence of Candida albicans to mucosal surfaces. Ann Microbiol (Paris) 1983; 134B: 293–306
  • Ray TL, Digre KB, Payne CD. Adherence of Candida species to human epidermal corneocytes and buccal mucosal cells: correlation with cutaneous pathogenicity. J Invest Dermatol 1984; 83: 37–41
  • Maraki S, Mouzas IA, Kontoyiannis DP, et al. Prospective evaluation of the impact of amoxicillin, clarithromycin and their combination on human gastrointestinal colonization by Candida species. Chemotherapy 2001; 47: 215–218
  • Mavromanolakis E, Maraki S, Cranidis A, et al. The impact of norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin on human gut colonization by Candida albicans. Scand J Infect Dis 2001; 33: 477–478
  • Samonis G, Thomakos N, Liakakos T, et al. Effects of cefepime and meropenem on the gastrointestinal colonization of surgical patients by Candida albicans. Chemotherapy 2001; 47: 350–353
  • Snelling CF, Ronald AR, Waters WR, et al. Comparison of silver sulfadiazine and gentamicin for topical prophylaxis against burn wound sepsis. Can Med Assoc J 1978; 119: 466–470
  • Seelig MS. The role of antibiotics in the pathogenesis of Candida infections. Am J Med 1966; 40: 887–917
  • Saiman L, Ludington E, Pfaller M, et al. Risk factors for candidemia in neonatal intensive care unit patients. The National Epidemiology of Mycosis Survey study group. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000; 19: 319–324
  • Hung CC, Chen YC, Chang SC, Luh KT, Hsieh WC. Nosocomial candidemia in a university hospital in Taiwan. J Formos Med Assoc 1996; 95: 19–28
  • Wey SB, Mori M, Pfaller MA, Woolson RF, Wenzel RP. Risk factors for hospital-acquired candidemia. A matched case-control study. Arch Intern Med 1989; 149: 2349–2353
  • Ekenna O, Sherertz RJ, Bingham H. Natural history of bloodstream infections in a burn patient population: the importance of candidemia. Am J Infect Control 1993; 21: 189–95
  • Wenzel RP. Nosocomial candidemia: risk factors and attributable mortality. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 20: 1531–1534
  • Krcmery V, Jr, Oravcova E, Spanik S, et al. Nosocomial breakthrough fungaemia during antifungal prophylaxis or empirical antifungal therapy in 41 cancer patients receiving antineoplastic chemotherapy: analysis of aetiology risk factors and outcome. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998; 41: 373–380
  • MacDonald L, Baker C, Chenoweth C. Risk factors for candidemia in a children's hospital. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26: 642–645
  • Launay O, Lortholary O, Bouges–Michel C, et al. Candidemia: a nosocomial complication in adults with late-stage AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26: 1134–1141
  • Tumbarello M, Tacconelli E, de Gaetano Donati K, et al. Candidemia in HIV-infected subjects. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1999; 18: 478–483
  • Richards KE, Pierson CL, Bucciarelli L, Feller I. Monilial sepsis in the surgical patient. Surg Clin North Am 1972; 52: 1399–1406
  • Kralovicova K, Spanik S, Oravcova E, et al. Fungemia in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy versus surgery: risk factors, etiology and outcome. Scand J Inf Dis 1997; 29: 301–304
  • Blijlevens NM, Donnelly JP, de Pauw BE. Impaired gut function as risk factor for invasive candidiasis in neutropenic patients. Br J Haematol 2002; 117: 259–264
  • Ang BS, Telenti A, King B, Steckelberg JM, Wilson WR. Candidemia from a urinary tract source: microbiological aspects and clinical significance. Clin Infect Dis 1993; 17: 662–666
  • Gross M, Winkler H, Pitlik S, Weinberger M. Unexpected candidemia complicating ureteroscopy and urinary stenting. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1998; 17: 583–586
  • Sallah S, Wan JY, Nguyen NP, Vos P, Sigounas G. Analysis of factors related to the occurrence of chronic disseminated candidiasis in patients with acute leukemia in a non-bone marrow transplant setting: a follow-up study. Cancer 2001; 92: 1349–1353
  • Ramirez-Amador V, Silverman S, Jr, Mayer P, Tyler M, Quivey J. Candidal colonization and oral candidiasis in patients undergoing oral and pharyngeal radiation therapy. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1997; 84: 149–153
  • Pappo I, Polacheck I, Zmora O, Feigin E, Freund HR. Altered gut barrier function to Candida during parenteral nutrition. Nutrition 1994; 10: 151–154
  • Stone HH, Kolb LD, Currie CA, Geheber CE, Cuzzell JZ. Candida sepsis: pathogenesis and principles of treatments. Ann Surg 1974; 179: 697–711
  • Cole GT, Halawa AA, Anaissie EJ. The role of the gastrointestinal tract in hematogenous candidiasis: from the laboratory to the bedside. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 22(Suppl. 2)S73–88
  • Krause W, Matheis H, Wulf K. Fungaemia and funguria after oral administration of Candida albicans. Lancet 1969; 1: 598–599
  • Eubanks PJ, de Virgilio C, Klein S, Bongard F. Candida sepsis in surgical patients. Am J Surg 1993; 166: 617–619; discussion 619–620.
  • Shirabe K, Takenaka K, Yamatomto K, et al. Impaired systemic immunity and frequent infection in patients with Candida antigen after hepatectomy. Hepatogastroenterology 1997; 44: 199–204
  • Gaines JD, Remington JS. Disseminated candidiasis in the surgical patient. Surgery 1972; 72: 730–736
  • Bayer AS, Blumenkrantz MJ, Montgomerie JZ, et al. Candida peritonitis. Report of 22 cases and review of the English literature. Am J Med 1976; 61: 832–840
  • Calandra T, Bille J, Schneider R, Mosimann F, Francioli P. Clinical significance of Candida isolated from peritoneum in surgical patients. Lancet 1989; 2(8677)1437–1440
  • Michalopoulos A, Stavridis G, Geroulanos S. Severe sepsis in cardiac surgical patients. Eur J Surg 1998; 164: 217–222
  • Antunes PE, Bernardo JE, Eugenio L, de Oliveira JF, Antunes MJ. Mediastinitis after aorto-coronary bypass surgery. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 1997; 12: 443–449
  • Giamarellou H. Nosocomial cardiac infections. J Hosp Infect 2002; 50: 91–105
  • Mestres CA, Chuquiure, JE, Claramonte X, , et al Long-term results after cardiac surgery in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1). Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2003; 23: 1007–1016; discussion 1016.
  • Verghese S, Mullasari A, Padmaja P, et al. Fungal endocarditis following cardiac surgery. Indian Heart J 1998; 50: 418–422
  • DeGregorio MW, Lee WM, Ries CA. Candida infections in patients with acute leukemia: ineffectiveness of nystatin prophylaxis and relationship between oropharyngeal and systemic candidiasis. Cancer 1982; 50: 2780–2784
  • Meunier F, Aoun M, Bitar N. Candidemia in immunocompromised patients. Clin Infect Dis 1992; 14(Suppl. 1)S120–125
  • Anaissie EJ, Rex JH, Uzun O, Vartivarian S. Predictors of adverse outcome in cancer patients with candidemia. Am J Med 1998; 104: 238–245
  • Uzun O, Anaissie EJ. Predictors of outcome in cancer patients with candidemia. Ann Oncol 2000; 11: 1517–1521
  • Uzun O, Ascioglu S, Anaissie EJ, Rex JH. Risk factors and predictors of outcome in patients with cancer and breakthrough candidemia. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32: 1713–1717
  • Heidenreich S, Kubis T, Schmidt M, Fegeler W. Glucocorticoid-induced alterations of monocyte defense mechanisms against Candida albicans. Cell Immunol 1994; 157: 320–327
  • Ziege SU, Geerdes–Fenge HF, Rau M, Buchwald U, Lode H. In vitro effects of interleukin-10, prednisolone, and GM–CSF on the non–specific immune function of human polymorphonuclear leucocytes and monocytes. Eur J Med Res 2000; 5: 369–374
  • Haroon Parupia MF, Dhanireddy R. Association of postnatal dexamethasone use and fungal sepsis in the development of severe retinopathy of prematurity and progression to laser therapy in extremely low-birth-weight infants. J Perinatol 2001; 21: 242–247
  • Duerr A, Heilig CM, Meikle SF, et al. Incident and persistent vulvovaginal candidiasis among human immunodeficiency virus-infected women: Risk factors and severity. Obstet Gynecol 2003; 101: 548–556
  • Powderly WG, Mayer KH, Perfect JR. Diagnosis and treatment of oropharyngeal candidiasis in patients infected with HIV: a critical reassessment. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1999; 15: 1405–1412
  • Brieland J, Essig D, Jackson C, et al. Comparison of pathogenesis and host immune responses to Candida glabrata and Candida albicans in systemically infected immunocompetent mice. Inf Immun 2001; 69: 5046–5055
  • Stanley VC, Hurley R. The growth of Candida species in cultures of mouse peritoneal macrophages. J Pathol 1969; 97: 357–366
  • Ibrahim AS, Spellberg BJ, Avanesian V, Fu Y, Edwards JEJ. The anti-Candida rAls1p-N vaccine is broadly active against disseminated candidiasis. Infect Immun 2006; 74: 3039–3041
  • Diekema DJ, Messer SA, Brueggemann AB, et al. Epidemiology of candidemia: 3-year results from the emerging infections and the epidemiology of Iowa organisms study. J Clin Microbiol 2002; 40: 1298–1302
  • Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ, Messer SA, Boyken L, Hollis RJ. Activities of fluconazole and voriconazole against 1,586 recent clinical isolates of Candida species determined by Broth microdilution, disk diffusion, and Etest methods: report from the ARTEMIS Global Antifungal Susceptibility Program, 2001. J Clin Microbiol 2003; 41: 1440–1446
  • Colombo AL, Nucci M, Salomao R, et al. High rate of non-albicans candidemia in Brazilian tertiary care hospitals. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1999; 34: 281–286
  • Colombo AL, Perfect J, DiNubile M, et al. Global distribution and outcomes for Candida species causing invasive candidiasis: results from an international randomized double-blind study of caspofungin versus amphotericin B for the treatment of invasive candidiasis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2003; 22: 470–474
  • Cuenca–Estrella M, Rodriguez D, Almirante B, et al. In vitro susceptibilities of bloodstream isolates of Candida species to six antifungal agents: results from a population-based active surveillance programme, Barcelona, Spain, 2002–2003. J Antimicrob Chemother 2005; 55: 194–199
  • Antoniadou A, Torres HA, Lewis RE, et al. Candidemia in a tertiary care cancer center: in vitro susceptibility and its association with outcome of initial antifungal therapy. Medicine (Baltimore) 2003; 82: 309–321
  • Safdar A, van Rhee F, Henslee-Downey JP, Singhal S, Mehta J. Candida glabrata and Candida krusei fungemia after high-risk allogeneic marrow transplantation: no adverse effect of low-dose fluconazole prophylaxis on incidence and outcome. Bone Marrow Transplant 2001; 28: 873–878
  • St-Germain G, Laverdiere M, Pelletier R, et al. Prevalence and antifungal susceptibility of 442 Candida isolates from blood and other normally sterile sites: results of a 2-year (1996 to 1998) multicenter surveillance study in Quebec, Canada. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39: 949–953
  • Chave JP, Durussel C, Glauser MP, Bille J. Asymptomatic oral yeast carriage in HIV-infected patients: frequency and fluconazole susceptibility profile. Clin Microbiol Infect 1996; 1: 249–252
  • Hunter KD, Gibson J, Lockhart P, Pithie A, Bagg J. Fluconazole-resistant Candida species in the oral flora of fluconazole-exposed HIV-positive patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1998; 85: 558–564
  • Borst A, Raimer MT, Warnock DW, Morrison CJ, Arthington-Skaggs BA. Rapid acquisition of stable azole resistance by Candida glabrata isolates obtained before the clinical introduction of fluconazole. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 783–787
  • Alexander BD, Schell WA, Miller JL, Long GD, Perfect JR. Candida glabrata fungemia in transplant patients receiving voriconazole after fluconazole. Transplantation 2005; 80: 868–871
  • Nawrot U, Nowicka J, Juszczak K, Gusin B. Susceptibility to antifungal agents of Candida species isolated from paediatric and adult patients with haematological diseases. Mycoses 2005; 48: 385–390
  • Magill SS, Shields C, Sears CL, Choti M, Merz WG. Triazole cross-resistance among Candida spp.: case report, occurrence among bloodstream isolates, and implications for antifungal therapy. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44: 529–535
  • Panackal AA, Gribskov JL, Staab JF, et al. Clinical significance of azole antifungal drug cross-resistance in Candida glabrata. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44: 1740–1743
  • Lin MY, Carmeli Y, Zumsteg J, et al. Prior antimicrobial therapy and risk for hospital–acquired Candida glabrata and Candida krusei fungemia: a case-control study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 4555–4560
  • Malani A, Hmoud J, Chiu L, et al. Candida glabrata fungemia: experience in a tertiary care center. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 975–981
  • Weinberger M, Leibovici L, Perez S, et al. Characteristics of candidaemia with Candida albicans compared with non-C. albicans Candida species and predictors of mortality. J Hosp Infect 2005; 61: 146–154
  • Parkinson T, Falconer DJ, Hitchcock CA. Fluconazole resistance due to energy-dependent drug efflux in Candida glabrata. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39: 1696–1699
  • Drago M, Scaltrito MM, Morace G. In vitro activity of voriconazole and other antifungal agents against clinical isolates of Candida glabrata and Candida krusei. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004; 23: 619–624
  • Safdar A, Armstrong D, Cross EW, Perlin DS. Prospective epidemiologic analysis of triazole-resistant nosocomial Candida glabrata isolated from patients at a comprehensive cancer center. Int J Infect Dis 2002; 6: 198–201
  • Swinne D, Watelle M, Van der Flaes M, Nolard N. In vitro activities of voriconazole (UK-109, 496), fluconazole, itraconazole and amphotericin B against 132 non-C. albicans bloodstream yeast isolates (CANARI study). Mycoses 2004; 47: 177–183
  • Pappas PG, Rex JH, Sobel JD, et al. Guidelines for treatment of candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 38: 161–189
  • Pai MP, Turpin RS, Garey KW. Association of fluconazole AUC/MIC and dose/MIC ratios with mortality in non-neutropenic patients with candidemia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51: 35–39
  • Orozco AS, Higginbotham LM, Hitchcock CA, et al. Mechanism of fluconazole resistance in Candida krusei. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998; 42: 2645–2649
  • Krcmery V, Jr, Mrazova M, Kunova A, et al. Nosocomial candidaemias due to species other than Candida albicans in cancer patients. Aetiology, risk factors, and outcome of 45 episodes within 10 years in a single cancer institution. Support Care Cancer 1999; 7: 428–431
  • Masala L, Luzzati R, Maccacaro L, et al. Nosocomial cluster of Candida guillermondii fungemia in surgical patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2003; 22: 686–688
  • Fanello S, Bouchara JP, Jousset N, Delbos V, LeFlohic AM. Nosocomial Candida albicans acquisition in a geriatric unit: epidemiology and evidence for person–to–person transmission. J Hosp Infect 2001; 47: 46–52
  • Pfaller MA, Messer SA, Houston A, et al. National epidemiology of mycoses survey: a multicenter study of strain variation and antifungal susceptibility among isolates of Candida species. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1998; 310: 289–296
  • Vazquez JA, Dembry LM, Sanchez V, et al. Nosocomial Candida glabrata colonization: an epidemiologic study. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36: 421–426
  • Pertowski CA, Baron RC, Lasker BA, Werner SB, Jarvis WR. Nosocomial outbreak of Candida albicans sternal wound infections following cardiac surgery traced to a scrub nurse. J Infect Dis 1995; 172: 817–822
  • Sandt C, Sockalingum GD, Aubert D, et al. Use of Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy for typing of Candida albicans strains isolated in intensive care units. J Clin Microbiol 2003; 41: 954–959
  • Stephan F, Bah MS, Desterke C, et al. Molecular diversity and routes of colonization of Candida albicans in a surgical intensive care unit, as studied using microsatellite markers. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 35: 1477–1483
  • Gudlaugsson O, Gillespie S, Lee K, et al. Attributable mortality of nosocomial candidemia, revisited. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37: 1172–1177
  • Pappas PG, Rex JH, Lee J, et al. A prospective observational study of candidemia: epidemiology, therapy, and influences on mortality in hospitalized adult and pediatric patients. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37: 634–643
  • Wey SB, Mori M, Pfaller MA, Woolson RF, Wenzel RP. Hospital-acquired candidemia. The attributable mortality and excess length of stay. Arch Intern Med 1988; 148: 2642–2645
  • Nucci M, Anaissie EJ, Queiroz–Telles F, et al. Outcome predictors of 84 patients with hematologic malignancies and Fusarium infection. Cancer 2003; 98: 315–319
  • Opal SM, Garber GE, LaRosa SP, et al. Systemic host responses in severe sepsis analyzed by causative microorganism and treatment effects of drotrecogin alfa (activated). Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37: 50–58
  • Lark RL, Chenoweth C, Saint S, et al. Four year prospective evaluation of nosocomial bacteremia: epidemiology, microbiology, and patient outcome. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2000; 38: 131–140
  • Kullberg BJ, Sobel JD, Ruhnke M, et al. Voriconazole versus a regimen of amphotericin B followed by fluconazole for candidaemia in non-neutropenic patients: a randomised non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2005; 366: 1435–1442
  • Blau IW, Fauser AA. Review of comparative studies between conventional and liposomal amphotericin B (Ambisome) in neutropenic patients with fever of unknown origin and patients with systemic mycosis. Mycoses 2000; 43: 325–332
  • Walsh TJ, Hiemenz JW, Seibel NL, et al. Amphotericin B lipid complex for invasive fungal infections: analysis of safety and efficacy in 556 cases. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26: 1383–1396
  • Mora–Duarte J, Betts R, Rotstein C, et al. Comparison of caspofungin and amphotericin B for invasive candidiasis. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 2020–2029
  • Garey KW, Rege M, Pai MP, et al. Time to initiation of fluconazole therapy impacts mortality in patients with candidemia: a multi-institutional study. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43: 25–31
  • Morrell M, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH. Delaying the empiric treatment of candida bloodstream infection until positive blood culture results are obtained: a potential risk factor for hospital mortality. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 3640–3645
  • Kumar A, Roberts D, Wood KE, et al. Duration of hypotension before initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock. Crit Care Med 2006; 34: 1589–1596
  • Edwards JE, Jr, Bodey GP, Bowden RA, et al. International conference for the development of a consensus on the management and prevention of severe candidal infections. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 25: 43–59
  • Reboli A, Rotstein C, Pappas P, , et al Anidulafungin vs. fluconazole for treatment of candidemia and invasive candidiasis (C/IC). Abstract M-718. In: Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (ICAAC); 2005; Washington, DC: ASM; 2005.
  • Ruhnke M, Kuse E, Chetchotisakd P, Arns Da Cunha C, Diekmann-Berndt H. Comparison of micafungin and liposomal amphotericin B for invasive candidiasis. Abstract M-722c. In: Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (ICAAC); 2005; Washington, DC: 2005.
  • Betts RF, Rotstein C, Talwar D, , et al Comparison of micafungin and caspofungin for candidemia or invasive candidiasis (IC). Abstract #M-1308a In: 46th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (ICAAC). San Francisco, CA; 2006.
  • Phillips P, Shafran S, Garber G, et al. Multicenter randomized trial of fluconazole versus amphotericin B for treatment of candidemia in non-neutropenic patients. Canadian Candidemia Study Group. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1997; 16: 337–345
  • Rex JH, Bennett JE, Sugar AM, et al. A randomized trial comparing fluconazole with amphotericin B for the treatment of candidemia in patients without neutropenia. Candidemia Study Group and the National Institute. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 1325–1330
  • Spellberg B, Filler SG, Edwards JE, Jr. Current treatment strategies for disseminated candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42: 244–251
  • Kartsonis N, Killar J, Mixson L, et al. Caspofungin susceptibility testing of isolates from patients with esophageal candidiasis or invasive candidiasis: relationship of MIC to treatment outcome. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 3616–3623
  • Rex JH, Pappas PG, Karchmer AW, et al. A randomized and blinded multicenter trial of high-dose fluconazole plus placebo versus fluconazole plus amphotericin B as therapy for candidemia and its consequences in nonneutropenic subjects. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 36: 1221–1228
  • Van Burik J, Weisdorf D. Infections in recipients of hematopoeitic stem cell transplantation. Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases6th ed., GL Mandell, JE Bennett, R Dolin. Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA 2005; 3486–3501
  • Cornet M, Fleury L, Maslo C, Bernard JF, Brucker G. Epidemiology of invasive aspergillosis in France: a six-year multicentric survey in the Greater Paris area. J Hosp Infect 2002; 51: 288–296
  • Denning DW, Marinus A, Cohen J, et al. An EORTC multicentre prospective survey of invasive aspergillosis in haematological patients: diagnosis and therapeutic outcome. EORTC Invasive Fungal Infections Cooperative Group. J Infect 1998; 37: 173–80
  • Steinbach WJ, Benjamin DK, Jr, Kontoyiannis DP, et al. Infections due to Aspergillus terreus: a multicenter retrospective analysis of 83 cases. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39: 192–198
  • Ribrag V, Dreyfus F, Venot A, et al. Prognostic factors of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in leukemic patients. Leuk Lymphoma 1993; 10: 317–321
  • Iwen PC, Reed EC, Armitage JO, et al. Nosocomial invasive aspergillosis in lymphoma patients treated with bone marrow or peripheral stem cell transplants. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993; 14: 131–139
  • Pannuti CS, Gingrich RD, Pfaller MA, Wenzel RP. Nosocomial pneumonia in adult patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation: a 9-year study. J Clin Oncol 1991; 9: 77–84
  • Mullins J, Harvey R, Seaton A. Sources and incidence of airborne Aspergillus fumigatus (Fres). Clin Allergy 1976; 6: 209–217
  • Hajjeh RA, Warnock DW. Counterpoint: invasive aspergillosis and the environment – rethinking our approach to prevention. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 1549–1552
  • Anaissie EJ, Stratton SL, Dignani MC, et al. Pathogenic Aspergillus species recovered from a hospital water system: a 3-year prospective study. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34: 780–789
  • Loo VG, Bertrand C, Dixon C, et al. Control of construction-associated nosocomial aspergillosis in an antiquated hematology unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996; 17: 360–364
  • Klimowski LL, Rotstein C, Cummings KM. Incidence of nosocomial aspergillosis in patients with leukemia over a twenty-year period. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1989; 10: 299–305
  • Hopkins CC, Weber DJ, Rubin RH. Invasive Aspergillus infection: possible non-ward common source within the hospital environment. J Hosp Infect 1989; 13: 19–25
  • Perraud M, Piens MA, Nicoloyannis N, et al. Invasive nosocomial pulmonary aspergillosis: risk factors and hospital building works. Epidemiol Infect 1987; 99: 407–412
  • Arnow PM, Andersen RL, Mainous PD, Smith EJ. Pumonary aspergillosis during hospital renovation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1978; 118: 49–53
  • Cooper EE, O'Reilly MA, Guest DI, Dharmage SC. Influence of building construction work on Aspergillus infection in a hospital setting. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2003; 24: 472–476
  • Pegues CF, Daar ES, Murthy AR. The epidemiology of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis at a large teaching hospital. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2001; 22: 370–374
  • Raad I, Hanna H, Osting C, et al. Masking of neutropenic patients on transport from hospital rooms is associated with a decrease in nosocomial aspergillosis during construction. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002; 23: 41–43
  • Oren I, Haddad N, Finkelstein R, Rowe JM. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in neutropenic patients during hospital construction: before and after chemoprophylaxis and institution of HEPA filters. Am J Hematol 2001; 66: 257–262
  • Sherertz RJ, Belani A, Kramer BS, et al. Impact of air filtration on nosocomial Aspergillus infections. Unique risk of bone marrow transplant recipients. Am J Med 1987; 83: 709–718
  • Alberti C, Bouakline A, Ribaud P, et al. Relationship between environmental fungal contamination and the incidence of invasive aspergillosis in haematology patients. J Hosp Infect 2001; 48: 198–206
  • Barnes RA, Rogers TR. Control of an outbreak of nosocomial aspergillosis by laminar air-flow isolation. J Hosp Infect 1989; 14: 89–94
  • Eckmanns T, Ruden H, Gastmeier P. The influence of high-efficiency particulate air filtration on mortality and fungal infection among highly immunosuppressed patients: a systematic review. J Infect Dis 2006; 193: 1408–1418
  • Bodey GP, Freireich EJ. Influence of high-efficiency particulate air filtration on mortality and fungal infection: a rebuttal. J Infect Dis 2006; 194: 1621–1622
  • Brakhage AA. Systemic fungal infections caused by Aspergillus species: epidemiology, infection process and virulence determinants. Curr Drug Targets 2005; 6: 875–886
  • Sutton DA, Sanche SE, Revankar SG, Fothergill AW, Rinaldi MG. In vitro amphotericin B resistance in clinical isolates of Aspergillus terreus, with a head-to-head comparison to voriconazole. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37: 2343–2345
  • Lass–Florl C, Kofler G, Kropshofer G, et al. In-vitro testing of susceptibility to amphotericin B is a reliable predictor of clinical outcome in invasive aspergillosis. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998; 42: 497–502
  • Hachem RY, Kontoyiannis DP, Boktour MR, et al. Aspergillus terreus: an emerging amphotericin B-resistant opportunistic mold in patients with hematologic malignancies. Cancer 2004; 101: 1594–1600
  • Patterson JE, Peters J, Calhoon JH, et al. Investigation and control of aspergillosis and other filamentous fungal infections in solid organ transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis 2000; 2: 22–28
  • Mylonakis E, Barlam TF, Flanigan T, Rich JD. Pulmonary aspergillosis and invasive disease in AIDS: review of 342 cases. Chest 1998; 114: 251–262
  • Wallace JM, Lim R, Browdy BL, et al. Risk factors and outcomes associated with identification of Aspergillus in respiratory specimens from persons with HIV disease. Pulmonary Complications of HIV Infection Study Group. Chest 1998; 114: 131–137
  • Wald A, Leisenring W, van Burik JA, Bowden RA. Epidemiology of Aspergillus infections in a large cohort of patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation. J Infect Dis 1997; 175: 1459–1466
  • Singh N, Paterson DL. Aspergillus infections in transplant recipients. Clin Microbiol Rev 2005; 18: 44–69
  • Marr KA, Carter RA, Boeckh M, Martin P, Corey L. Invasive aspergillosis in allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients: changes in epidemiology and risk factors. Blood 2002; 100: 4358–4366
  • Duthie R, Denning DW. Aspergillus fungemia: report of two cases and review. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 20: 598–605
  • Reichenberger F, Habicht J, Matt P, et al. Diagnostic yield of bronchoscopy in histologically proven invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Bone Marrow Transplant 1999; 24: 1195–1199
  • Yu VL, Muder RR, Poorsattar A. Significance of isolation of Aspergillus from the respiratory tract in diagnosis of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Results from a three-year prospective study. Am J Med 1986; 81: 249–254
  • Ascioglu S, Rex JH, de Pauw B, et al. Defining opportunistic invasive fungal infections in immunocompromised patients with cancer and hematopoietic stem cell transplants: an international consensus. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34: 7–14
  • Stevens DA, Kan VL, Judson MA, et al. Practice guidelines for diseases caused by Aspergillus. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30: 696–709
  • Mennink-Kersten MA, Donnelly JP, Verweij PE. Detection of circulating galactomannan for the diagnosis and management of invasive aspergillosis. Lancet Infect Dis 2004; 4: 349–357
  • Pfeiffer CD, Fine JP, Safdar N. Diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis using a galactomannan assay: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42: 1417–1427
  • Mennink-Kersten MA, Klont RR, Warris A, Op den Camp HJ, Verweij PE. Bifidobacterium lipoteichoic acid and false ELISA reactivity in Aspergillus antigen detection. Lancet 2004; 363: 325–327
  • Mennink-Kersten MA, Ruegebrink D, Klont RR, et al. Bifidobacterial lipoglycan as a new cause for false-positive platelia Aspergillus enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay reactivity. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43: 3925–3931
  • Sulahian A, Touratier S, Ribaud P. False positive test for Aspergillus antigenemia related to concomitant administration of piperacillin and tazobactam. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 2366–2367
  • Adam O, Auperin A, Wilquin F, et al. Treatment with piperacillin-tazobactam and false-positive Aspergillus galactomannan antigen test results for patients with hematological malignancies. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 38: 917–920
  • Aubry A, Porcher R, Bottero J, et al. Occurrence and kinetics of false-positive Aspergillus galactomannan test results following treatment with beta-lactam antibiotics in patients with hematological disorders. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44: 389–394
  • Hope WW, Walsh TJ, Denning DW. Laboratory diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. Lancet Infect Dis 2005; 5: 609–622
  • Wheat LJ. Antigen detection, serology, and molecular diagnosis of invasive mycoses in the immunocompromised host. Transpl Infect Dis 2006; 8: 128–139
  • Hebart H, Loffler J, Meisner C, et al. Early detection of Aspergillus infection after allogeneic stem cell transplantation by polymerase chain reaction screening. J Infect Dis 2000; 181: 1713–1719
  • Horger M, Hebart H, Einsele H, et al. Initial CT manifestations of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in 45 non-HIV immunocompromised patients: association with patient outcome?. Eur J Radiol 2005; 55: 437–444
  • Brodoefel H, Vogel M, Hebart H, et al. Long-term CT follow-up in 40 non-HIV immunocompromised patients with invasive pulmonary aspergillosis: kinetics of CT morphology and correlation with clinical findings and outcome. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2006; 187: 404–413
  • Lee YR, Choi YW, Lee KJ, et al. CT halo sign: the spectrum of pulmonary diseases. Br J Radiol 2005; 78: 862–865
  • Horger M, Einsele H, Schumacher U, et al. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis: frequency and meaning of the ‘hypodense sign’ on unenhanced CT. Br J Radiol 2005; 78: 697–703
  • Hauggaard A, Ellis M, Ekelund L. Early chest radiography and CT in the diagnosis, management and outcome of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Acta Radiol 2002; 43: 292–298
  • Kami M, Kishi Y, Hamaki T, et al. The value of the chest computed tomography halo sign in the diagnosis of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. An autopsy-based retrospective study of 48 patients. Mycoses 2002; 45: 287–294
  • Caillot D, Couaillier JF, Bernard A, et al. Increasing volume and changing characteristics of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis on sequential thoracic computed tomography scans in patients with neutropenia. J Clin Oncol 2001; 19: 253–259
  • Herbrecht R, Denning DW, Patterson TF, et al. Voriconazole versus amphotericin B for primary therapy of invasive aspergillosis. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 408–415
  • Bowden R, Chandrasekar P, White MH, et al. A double-blind, randomized, controlled trial of amphotericin B colloidal dispersion versus amphotericin B for treatment of invasive aspergillosis in immunocompromised patients. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 35: 359–366
  • Martino R, Cortes M, Subira M, et al. Efficacy and toxicity of intermediate-dose amphotericin B lipid complex as a primary or salvage treatment of fungal infections in patients with hematological malignancies. Leuk Lymphoma 2005; 46: 1429–1435
  • Ringden O, Meunier F, Tollemar J, et al. Efficacy of amphotericin B encapsulated in liposomes (AmBisome) in the treatment of invasive fungal infections in immunocompromised patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 1991; 28(Suppl. B)73–82
  • Kohno S, Masaoka T, Yamaguchi H, et al. A multicenter, open-label clinical study of micafungin (FK463) in the treatment of deep-seated mycosis in Japan. Scand J Infect Dis 2004; 36: 372–379
  • Fleming RV, Kantarjian HM, Husni R, et al. Comparison of amphotericin B lipid complex (ABLC) vs. ambisome in the treatment of suspected or documented fungal infections in patients with leukemia. Leuk Lymphoma 2001; 40: 511–520
  • Maertens J, Raad I, Petrikkos G, et al. Efficacy and safety of caspofungin for treatment of invasive aspergillosis in patients refractory to or intolerant of conventional antifungal therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39: 1563–1571
  • Caillot D. Intravenous itraconazole followed by oral itraconazole for the treatment of amphotericin-B-refractory invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Acta Haematol 2003; 109: 111–118
  • Caillot D, Bassaris H, McGeer A, et al. Intravenous itraconazole followed by oral itraconazole in the treatment of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with hematologic malignancies, chronic granulomatous disease, or AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: e83–90
  • Denning DW, Lee JY, Hostetler JS, et al. NIAID Mycoses Study Group Multicenter Trial of Oral Itraconazole Therapy for Invasive Aspergillosis. Am J Med 1994; 97: 135–144
  • Dupont B. Itraconazole therapy in aspergillosis: study in 49 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990; 2323(3 Pt 2)607–614
  • Torres HA, Hachem RY, Chemaly RF, Kontoyiannis DP, Raad, II. Posaconazole: a broad-spectrum triazole antifungal. Lancet Infect Dis 2005; 5: 775–785.
  • Pitisuttithum P, Negroni R, Graybill JR, et al. Activity of posaconazole in the treatment of central nervous system fungal infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 2005; 56: 745–755
  • Steinbach WJ. Combination antifungal therapy for invasive aspergillosis: utilizing new targeting strategies. Curr Drug Targets Infect Disord 2005; 5: 203–210
  • Marr KA, Boeckh M, Carter RA, Kim HW, Corey L. Combination antifungal therapy for invasive aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39: 797–802
  • Singh N, Limaye AP, Forrest G, et al. Combination of voriconazole and caspofungin as primary therapy for invasive aspergillosis in solid organ transplant recipients: a prospective, multicenter, observational study. Transplantation 2006; 81: 320–326
  • Spellberg B, Edwards J, Jr, Ibrahim A. Novel perspectives on mucormycosis: pathophysiology, presentation, and management. Clin Microbiol Rev 2005; 18: 556–569
  • Hotchi M, Okada M, Nasu T. Present state of fungal infections in autopsy cases in Japan. Am J Clin Pathol 1980; 74: 410–416
  • Tietz HJ, Brehmer D, Janisch W, Martin H. [Incidence of endomycoses in the autopsy material of the Berlin Charite Hospital]. Mycoses 1998; 41(Suppl. 2)81–5
  • Yamazaki T, Kume H, Murase S, Yamashita E, Arisawa M. Epidemiology of visceral mycoses: analysis of data in annual of the pathological autopsy cases in Japan. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37: 1732–1738
  • Nussbaum ES, Hall WA. Rhinocerebral mucormycosis: changing patterns of disease. Surg Neurol 1994; 41: 152–156
  • Maertens J, Demuynck H, Verbeken EK, et al. Mucormycosis in allogeneic bone marrow transplant recipients: report of five cases and review of the role of iron overload in the pathogenesis. Bone Marrow Transplant 1999; 24: 307–312
  • Marty FM, Cosimi LA, Baden LR. Breakthrough zygomycosis after voriconazole treatment in recipients of hematopoietic stem-cell transplants. N Engl J Med 2004; 350: 950–952
  • Ribes JA, Vanover-Sams CL, Baker DJ. Zygomycetes in human disease. Clin Microbiol Rev 2000; 13: 236–301
  • Roden MM, Zaoutis TE, Buchanan WL, et al. Epidemiology and outcome of zygomycosis: a review of 929 reported cases. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 634–653
  • Kwon-Chung KJ, Bennett JE. Mucormycosis. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger 1992: 524–559.
  • Ibrahim AS, J. E. J. Edwards, Filler, S. G. Zygomycosis. In: Clinical mycology. Dismukes WE, Pappas PG, and Sobel JD. 2003. Oxford University Press. p. 241–251.
  • Cohen-Abbo A, Bozeman PM, Patrick CC. Cunninghamella infections: review and report of two cases of Cunninghamella pneumonia in immunocompromised children. Clin Infect Dis 1993; 17: 173–177
  • Kwon-Chung KJ, Young RC, Orlando M. Pulmonary mucormycosis caused by Cunninghamella elegans in a patient with chronic myelogenous leukemia. Am J Clin Path 1975; 64: 544–548
  • Kontoyianis DP, Vartivarian S, Anaissie EJ, et al. Infections due to Cunninghamella bertholletiae in patients with cancer: report of three cases and review. Clin Infect Dis 1994; 18: 925–928
  • Ventura GJ, Kantarjian HM, Anaissie E, Hopfer RL, Fainstein V. Pneumonia with Cunninghamella species in patients with hematologic malignancies. A case report and review of the literature. Cancer 1986; 58: 1534–1536
  • Bearer EA, Nelson PR, Chowers MY, Davis CE. Cutaneous zygomycosis caused by Saksenaea vasiformis in a diabetic patient. J Clin Microbiol 1994; 32: 1823–1824
  • Lye GR, Wood G, Nimmo G. Subcutaneous zygomycosis due to Saksenaea vasiformis: rapid isolate identification using a modified sporulation technique. Pathology 1996; 28: 364–365
  • Kemna ME, Neri RC, Ali R, Salkin IF. Cokeromyces recurvatus, a mucoraceous zygomycete rarely isolated in clinical laboratories. J Clin Microbiol 1994; 32: 843–845
  • Kamalam A, Thambiah AS. Cutaneous infection by Syncephalastrum. Sabouraudia 1980; 18: 19–20
  • Rickerts V, Bohme A, Just–Nubling G. [Risk factor for invasive zygomycosis in patients with hematologic malignancies]. Mycoses 2002; 45(Suppl. 1)27–30
  • Kontoyiannis DP, Wessel VC, Bodey GP, Rolston KV. Zygomycosis in the in a tertiary-care cancer center. Clin Infect Dis 1990s; 2000(30)851–856
  • Kauffman CA. Zygomycosis: reemergence of an old pathogen. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39: 588–590
  • Gartenberg G, Bottone EJ, Keusch GT, Weitzman I. Hospital-acquired mucormycosis (Rhizopus rhizopodiformis) of skin and subcutaneous tissue: epidemiology, mycology and treatment. N Engl J Med 1978; 299: 1115–1118
  • Petrikkos G, Skiada A, Sambatakou H, et al. Mucormycosis: ten-year experience at a tertiary-care center in Greece. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2003; 22: 753–756
  • Adam RD, Hunter G, DiTomasso J, Comerci G, Jr. Mucormycosis: emerging prominence of cutaneous infections. Clin Infect Dis 1994; 19: 67–76.
  • Baraia J, Munoz P, Bernaldo de Quiros JC, Bouza E. Cutaneous mucormycosis in a heart transplant patient associated with a peripheral catheter. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1995; 14: 813–815
  • Khardori N, Hayat S, Rolston K, Bodey GP. Cutaneous Rhizopus and Aspergillus infections in five patients with cancer. Arch Dermatol 1989; 125: 952–956
  • Leong KW, Crowley B, White B, et al. Cutaneous mucormycosis due to Absidia corymbifera occurring after bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 1997; 19: 513–515
  • Harper JJ, Coulter C, Lye GR, Nimmo GR. Rhizopus and tongue depressors. Lancet 1996; 348: 1250
  • Maravi–Poma E, Rodriguez–Tudela JL, de Jalon JG, et al. Outbreak of gastric mucormycosis associated with the use of wooden tongue depressors in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med 2004; 30: 724–728
  • Holzel H, Macqueen S, MacDonald A, et al. Rhizopus microsporus in wooden tongue depressors: a major threat or minor inconvenience?. J Hosp Infect 1998; 38: 113–118
  • Siwek GT, Dodgson KJ, de Magalhaes-Silverman M, et al. Invasive zygomycosis in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients receiving voriconazole prophylaxis. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39: 584–587
  • Pavie J, Lafaurie M, Lacroix C, et al. Successful treatment of pulmonary mucormycosis in an allogenic bone-marrow transplant recipient with combined medical and surgical therapy. Scand J Infect Dis 2004; 36: 767–769
  • Imhof A, Balajee SA, Fredricks DN, Englund JA, Marr KA. Breakthrough fungal infections in stem cell transplant recipients receiving voriconazole. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39: 743–746
  • Ide L, Buysschaert I, Demuynck H, et al. Zygomycosis in neutropenic patients with past Aspergillus infection: a role for posaconazole?. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004; 10: 862–863
  • Vigouroux S, Morin O, Moreau P, et al. Zygomycosis after prolonged use of voriconazole in immunocompromised patients with hematologic disease: attention required. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40: e35–7
  • Morrison VA, McGlave PB. Mucormycosis in the BMT population. Bone Marrow Transplant 1993; 11: 383–388
  • Alsuwaida K. Primary cutaneous mucormycosis complicating the use of adhesive tape to secure the endotracheal tube. Can J Anaesth 2002; 49: 880–882
  • Kerr OA, Bong C, Wallis C, Tidman MJ. Primary cutaneous mucormycosis masquerading as pyoderma gangrenosum. Br J Dermatol 2004; 150: 1212–1213
  • Quinio D, Karam A, Leroy JP, et al. Zygomycosis caused by Cunninghamella bertholletiae in a kidney transplant recipient. Med Mycol 2004; 42: 177–180
  • Mead JH, Lupton GP, Dillavou CL, Odom RB. Cutaneous Rhizopus infection. Occurrence as a postoperative complication associated with an elasticized adhesive dressing. JAMA 1979; 242: 272–274
  • Chamilos G, Marom EM, Lewis RE, Lionakis MS, Kontoyiannis DP. Predictors of pulmonary zygomycosis versus invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with cancer. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 60–66
  • Nithyanandam S, Jacob MS, Battu RR, et al. Rhino-orbito-cerebral mucormycosis. A retrospective analysis of clinical features and treatment outcomes. Indian J Ophthalmol 2003; 51: 231–236
  • Mori T, Egashira M, Kawamata N, et al. [Zygomycosis: two case reports and review of reported cases in the literature in Japan]. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi 2003; 44: 163–179
  • Sugar AM. Agents of Mucormycosis and Related Species. In: Principles and practice of infectious diseases, 6th edition. Mandell Gl, Bennet JE, and Dolin R. Philadelphia: Elsevier 2005: 2979.
  • Ericsson M, Anniko M, Gustafsson H, et al. A case of chronic progressive rhinocerebral mucormycosis treated with liposomal amphotericin B and surgery. Clin Infect Dis 1993; 16: 585–586
  • Cagatay AA, Oncu SS, Calangu SS, et al. Rhinocerebral mucormycosis treated with 32 gram liposomal amphotericin B and incomplete surgery: a case report. BMC Infect Dis 2001; 1: 22
  • Weng DE, Wilson WH, Little R, Walsh TJ. Successful medical management of isolated renal zygomycosis: case report and review. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26: 601–605
  • Ibrahim AS, Avanessian V, Spellberg B, Edwards JE, Jr. Liposomal amphotericin B, and not amphotericin B deoxycholate, improves survival of diabetic mice infected with Rhizopus oryzae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47: 3343–3344
  • Spellberg B, Fu Y, Edwards JE, Jr, Ibrahim AS. Combination therapy with amphotericin B lipid complex and caspofungin acetate of disseminated zygomycosis in diabetic ketoacidotic mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 830–832
  • Ibrahim AS, Klein S, Lee H, , et al. Efficacy of amphotericin B lipid complex in murine mucormycosis. Presented at the 40th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (ICAAC), Toronto, Canada. 2000.
  • Groll AH, Giri N, Petraitis V, et al. Comparative efficacy and distribution of lipid formulations of amphotericin B in experimental Candida albicans infection of the central nervous system. J Infect Dis 2000; 182: 274–282
  • Gleissner B, Schilling A, Anagnostopolous I, Siehl I, Thiel E. Improved outcome of zygomycosis in patients with hematological diseases?. Leuk Lymphoma 2004; 45: 1351–1360
  • Sun QN, Fothergill AW, McCarthy DI, Rinaldi MG, Graybill JR. In vitro activities of posaconazole, itraconazole, voriconazole, amphotericin B, and fluconazole against 37 clinical isolates of zygomycetes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46: 1581–1582
  • Pfaller MA, Messer SA, Hollis RJ, Jones RN. Antifungal activities of posaconazole, ravuconazole, and voriconazole compared to those of itraconazole and amphotericin B against 239 clinical isolates of Aspergillus spp. and other filamentous fungi: report from SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program, 2000. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000; 46: 1032–1037
  • van Burik JA, Hare RS, Solomon HF, Corrado ML, Kontoyiannis DP. Posaconazole is effective as salvage therapy in zygomycosis: a retrospective summary of 91 cases. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42: e61–5
  • Sun QN, Najvar LK, Bocanegra R, Loebenberg D, Graybill JR. In vivo activity of posaconazole against Mucor spp. in an immunosuppressed-mouse model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46: 2310–2312
  • Dannaoui E, Meis JF, Loebenberg D, Verweij PE. Activity of posaconazole in treatment of experimental disseminated zygomycosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47: 3647–3650
  • Espinel–Ingroff A. Comparison of in vitro activities of the new triazole SCH56592 and the echinocandins MK–0991 (L–743,872) and LY303366 against opportunistic filamentous and dimorphic fungi and yeasts. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36: 2950–2956
  • Del Poeta M, Schell WA, Perfect JR. In vitro antifungal activity of pneumocandin L–743,872 against a variety of clinically important molds. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997; 41: 1835–1836
  • Ibrahim AS, Bowman JC, Avanessian V, et al. Caspofungin inhibits Rhizopus oryzae 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase, lowers burden in brain measured by quantitative PCR, and improves survival at a low but not a high dose during murine disseminated zygomycosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 721–727
  • Boelaert JR, Van Cutsem J, de Locht M, Schneider YJ, Crichton RR. Deferoxamine augments growth and pathogenicity of Rhizopus, while hydroxypyridinone chelators have no effect. Kidney Int 1994; 45: 667–671
  • Boelaert JR, de Locht M, Van Cutsem J, et al. Mucormycosis during deferoxamine therapy is a siderophore-mediated infection. In vitro and in vivo animal studies. J Clin Invest 1993; 91: 1979–1986
  • de Locht M, Boelaert JR, Schneider YJ. Iron uptake from ferrioxamine and from ferrirhizoferrin by germinating spores of Rhizopus microsporus. Biochem Pharmacol 1994; 47: 1843–1850
  • Ibrahim AS, Edwards JE, Jr, Fu Y, Spellberg B. Deferiprone iron chelation as a novel therapy for experimental mucormycosis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006; 58: 1070–1073
  • Cappellini MD. Iron-chelating therapy with the new oral agent ICL670 (Exjade). Best Pract Res Clin Haematol 2005; 18: 289–298
  • Reed C, Ibrahim AS, Edwards JE, Walot I, Spellberg B. Deferasirox, an iron-chelating agent, as salvage therapy for rhinocerebral mucormycosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 3968–3969.
  • Peterson KL, Wang M, Canalis RF, Abemayor E. Rhinocerebral mucormycosis: evolution of the disease and treatment options. Laryngoscope 1997; 107: 855–862
  • Khor BS, Lee MH, Leu HS, Liu JW. Rhinocerebral mucormycosis in Taiwan. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2003; 36: 266–269
  • Tedder M, Spratt JA, Anstadt MP, et al. Pulmonary mucormycosis: results of medical and surgical therapy. Ann Thorac Surg 1994; 57: 1044–1050
  • Reid VJ, Solnik DL, Daskalakis T, Sheka KP. Management of bronchovascular mucormycosis in a diabetic: a surgical success. Ann Thorac Surg 2004; 78: 1449–1451
  • Asai K, Suzuki K, Takahashi T, et al. Pulmonary resection with chest wall removal and reconstruction for invasive pulmonary mucormycosis during antileukemia chemotherapy. Jpn J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2003; 51: 163–166
  • Morrison VA, Haake RJ, Weisdorf DJ. Non-Candida fungal infections after bone marrow transplantation: risk factors and outcome. Am J Med 1994; 96: 497–503
  • Nucci M, Marr KA, Queiroz-Telles F, et al. Fusarium infection in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 38: 1237–1242
  • Anaissie EJ, Kuchar RT, Rex JH, et al. Fusariosis associated with pathogenic Fusarium species colonization of a hospital water system: a new paradigm for the epidemiology of opportunistic mold infections. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 1871–1878
  • Dignani MC, Anaissie E. Human fusariosis. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004; 10(Suppl. 1)67–75
  • Sampathkumar P, Paya CV. Fusarium infection after solid-organ transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32: 1237–1240
  • Boutati EI, Anaissie EJ. Fusarium, a significant emerging pathogen in patients with hematologic malignancy: ten years’ experience at a cancer center and implications for management. Blood 1997; 90: 999–1008
  • Nucci M, Anaissie E. Cutaneous infection by Fusarium species in healthy and immunocompromised hosts: implications for diagnosis and management. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 35: 909–920
  • Walsh TJ, Groll A, Hiemenz J, et al. Infections due to emerging and uncommon medically important fungal pathogens. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004; 10(Suppl. 1)48–66
  • Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ. Rare and emerging opportunistic fungal pathogens: concern for resistance beyond Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 4419–4431
  • Raad II, Hachem RY, Herbrecht R, et al. Posaconazole as salvage treatment for invasive fusariosis in patients with underlying hematologic malignancy and other conditions. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42: 1398–1403
  • Abzug MJ, Walsh TJ. Interferon-gamma and colony-stimulating factors as adjuvant therapy for refractory fungal infections in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004; 23: 769–773
  • Husain S, Munoz P, Forrest G, et al. Infections due to Scedosporium apiospermum and Scedosporium prolificans in transplant recipients: clinical characteristics and impact of antifungal agent therapy on outcome. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40: 89–99
  • Carrillo AJ, Guarro J. In vitro activities of four novel triazoles against Scedosporium spp. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45: 2151–2153
  • Gosbell IB, Toumasatos V, Yong J, et al. Cure of orthopaedic infection with Scedosporium prolificans, using voriconazole plus terbinafine, without the need for radical surgery. Mycoses 2003; 46: 233–236
  • Howden BP, Slavin MA, Schwarer AP, Mijch AM. Successful control of disseminated Scedosporium prolificans infection with a combination of voriconazole and terbinafine. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2003; 22: 111–113
  • Whyte M, Irving H, O'Regan P, et al. Disseminated Scedosporium prolificans infection and survival of a child with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2005; 24: 375–377
  • Theuretzbacher U. Pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of echinocandins. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004; 23: 805–812
  • Dowell JA, Schranz J, Baruch A, Foster G. Safety and pharmacokinetics of coadministered voriconazole and anidulafungin. J Clin Pharmacol 2005; 45: 1373–1382
  • Hiemenz J, Cagnoni P, Simpson D, et al. Pharmacokinetic and maximum tolerated dose study of micafungin in combination with fluconazole versus fluconazole alone for prophylaxis of fungal infections in adult patients undergoing a bone marrow or peripheral stem cell transplant. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 1331–1336
  • Stone JA, Holland SD, Wickersham PJ, et al. Single- and multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of caspofungin in healthy men. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46: 739–745

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.