Publication Cover
Human Fertility
an international, multidisciplinary journal dedicated to furthering research and promoting good practice
Volume 26, 2023 - Issue 3
1,882
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Articles

Fertility preservation and realignment in transgender women

, ORCID Icon, , , , ORCID Icon, , , , , , , ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon show all
Pages 463-482 | Received 17 Mar 2022, Accepted 01 Sep 2022, Published online: 17 Feb 2023

References

  • Adeleye, A. J., Reid, G., Kao, C. N., Mok-Lin, E., & Smith, J. F. (2019). Semen parameters among transgender women with a history of hormonal treatment. Urology, 124, 136–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2018.10.005
  • Alford, A. V., Theisen, K. M., Kim, N., Bodie, J. A., & Pariser, J. J. (2020). Successful ejaculatory sperm cryopreservation after cessation of long-term estrogen therapy in a transgender female. Urology, 136, e48–e50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2019.08.021
  • Alghrani, A. (2016a). Uterus transplantation: Does procreative liberty encompass a right to gestate? Journal of Law and the Biosciences, 3(3), 636–641. https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsw048
  • Alghrani, A. (2016b). Yes, uterus transplants should be publicly funded! Journal of Medical Ethics, 42(9), 566–567. https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2015-103231
  • Alghrani, A. (2018). Regulating assisted reproductive technologies: New horizons. Cambridge University Press.
  • Alpern, S., Yaish, I., Wagner-Kolasko, G., Greenman, Y., Sofer, Y., Paltiel Lifshitz, D., Groutz, A., Azem, F., & Amir, H. (2022). Why fertility preservation rates of transgender men are much lower than those of transgender women. Reproductive Biomedicine Online, 44(5), 943–950. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rbmo.2022.01.003
  • American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). APA. https://psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm
  • Amir, H., Perl, L., Barda, S., Lantsberg, D., Becker, A. S., Israeli, G., Azem, F., & Oren, A. (2022). Adolescent transgender females present impaired semen quality that is suitable for intracytoplasmic sperm injection even before initiating gender-affirming hormone treatment. Reproductive Sciences (Thousand Oaks, Calif.), 29(1), 260–269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43032-021-00561-y
  • Amir, H., Yaish, I., Oren, A., Groutz, A., Greenman, Y., & Azem, F. (2020). Fertility preservation rates among transgender women compared with transgender men receiving comprehensive fertility counselling. Reproductive Biomedicine Online, 41(3), 546–554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.05.003
  • Auer, M. K., Fuss, J., Nieder, T. O., Briken, P., Biedermann, S. V., Stalla, G. K., Beckmann, M. W., & Hildebrandt, T. (2018). Desire to have children among transgender people in Germany: A cross-sectional multi-center study. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 15(5), 757–767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2018.03.083
  • Baert, Y., Van Saen, D., Haentjens, P., In’t Veld, P., Tournaye, H., & Goossens, E. (2013). What is the best cryopreservation protocol for human testicular tissue banking? Human Reproduction (Oxford, England), 28(7), 1816–1826. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/det100
  • Barnard, E. P., Dhar, C. P., Rothenberg, S. S., Menke, M. N., Witchel, S. F., Montano, G. T., Orwig, K. E., & Valli-Pulaski, H. (2019). Fertility preservation outcomes in adolescent and young adult feminizing transgender patients. Pediatrics, 144(3), e20183943. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-3943
  • Beattie, C. (2022). High court should not restrict access to puberty blockers for minors. Journal of Medical Ethics, 48(1), 71–76. https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2020-107055
  • Becerra-Fernández, A., Rodríguez-Molina, J. M., Asenjo-Araque, N., Lucio-Pérez, M. J., Cuchí-Alfaro, M., García-Camba, E., Pérez-López, G., Menacho-Román, M., Berrocal-Sertucha, M. C., Ly-Pen, D., & Aguilar-Vilas, M. V. (2017). Prevalence, incidence, and sex ratio of transsexualism in the autonomous region of Madrid (Spain) according to healthcare demand. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46(5), 1307–1312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-0955-z
  • Brantelid, I. E., Nilvér, H., & Alehagen, S. (2014). Menstruation during a lifespan: A qualitative study of women’s experiences. Health Care for Women International, 35(6), 600–616. https://doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2013.868465
  • Brik, T., Vrouenraets, L. J., Schagen, S. E., Meissner, A., de Vries, M. C., & Hannema, S. E. (2019). Use of fertility preservation among a cohort of transgirls in the Netherlands. The Journal of Adolescent Health : Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 64(5), 589–593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.11.008
  • Brinster, R. L., & Zimmermann, J. W. (1994). Spermatogenesis following male germ-cell transplantation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 91(24), 11298–11302. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.91.24.11298
  • Broughton, D., & Omurtag, K. (2017). Care of the transgender or gender-nonconforming patient undergoing in vitro fertilization. International Journal of Transgenderism, 18(4), 372–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2017.1352554
  • Catsanos, R., Rogers, W., & Lotz, M. (2013). The ethics of uterus transplantation. Bioethics, 27(2), 65–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2011.01897.x
  • Chen, D., Kolbuck, V. D., Sutter, M. E., Tishelman, A. C., Quinn, G. P., & Nahata, L. (2019). Knowledge, practice behaviors, and perceived barriers to fertility care among providers of transgender healthcare. The Journal of Adolescent Health : Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 64(2), 226–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.08.025
  • Chen, D., Matson, M., Macapagal, K., Johnson, E. K., Rosoklija, I., Finlayson, C., Fisher, C. B., & Mustanski, B. (2018). Attitudes toward fertility and reproductive health among transgender and gender-nonconforming adolescents. The Journal of Adolescent Health : Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 63(1), 62–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.11.306
  • Chen, D., & Simons, L. (2018). Ethical considerations in fertility preservation for transgender youth: A case illustration. Clinical Practice in Pediatric Psychology, 6(1), 93–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/cpp0000230
  • Chen, D., Simons, L., Johnson, E. K., Lockart, B. A., & Finlayson, C. (2017). Fertility preservation for transgender adolescents. The Journal of Adolescent Health : Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 61(1), 120–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.01.022
  • Chiland, C., Clouet, A. M., Golse, B., Guinot, M., & Wolf, J. P. (2013). A new type of family: Transmen as fathers thanks to donor sperm insemination. A 12-year follow-up exploratory study of their children. Neuropsychiatrie de l'Enfance et de l'Adolescence, 61(6), 365–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurenf.2013.07.001
  • Chiniara, L. N., Viner, C., Palmert, M., & Bonifacio, H. (2019). Perspectives on fertility preservation and parenthood among transgender youth and their parents. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 104(8), 739–744. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2018-316080
  • Coleman, E. (2017). Standards of care for the health of transsexual, transgender, and gender-nonconforming people: An introduction. In Principles of gender-specific medicine (pp. 69–75). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2011.700873
  • Coleman, E., Bockting, W., Botzer, M., Cohen-Kettenis, P., DeCuypere, G., Feldman, J., Fraser, L., Green, J., Knudson, G., Meyer, W. J., Monstrey, S., Adler, R. K., Brown, G. R., Devor, A. H., Ehrbar, R., Ettner, R., Eyler, E., Garofalo, R., Karasic, D. H., … Zucker, K. (2012). Standards of care for the health of transsexual, transgender, and gender-nonconforming people, version 7. International Journal of Transgenderism, 13(4), 165–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2011.700873
  • Costa, R., & Colizzi, M. (2016). The effect of cross-sex hormonal treatment on gender dysphoria individuals’ mental health: A systematic review. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 12, 1953–1966. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S95310
  • Couch, M., Pitts, M., Patel, S., Mulcare, H., Croy, S., & Mitchell, A. (2007). TranZnation - a report on the health and wellbeing of transgender people in Australia and New Zealand. Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health & Society, La Trobe University. https://doi.org/10.4225/50/557E5CFB09E8E
  • Crissman, H. P., Berger, M. B., Graham, L. F., & Dalton, V. K. (2017). Transgender demographics: A household probability sample of US adults, 2014. American Journal of Public Health, 107(2), 213–215. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2016.303571
  • Daar, J., & Klipstein, S. (2016). Refocusing the ethical choices in womb transplantation. Journal of Law and the Biosciences, 3(2), 383–388. https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsw031
  • De Cuypere, G., Van Hemelrijck, M., Michel, A., Carael, B., Heylens, G., Rubens, R., Hoebeke, P., & Monstrey, S. (2007). Prevalence and demography of transsexualism in Belgium. European Psychiatry: The Journal of the Association of European Psychiatrists, 22(3), 137–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2006.10.002
  • de Nie, I., Meißner, A., Kostelijk, E., Soufan, A., Voorn-de Warem, I., den Heijer, M., Huirne, J., & van Mello, N. (2020). Impaired semen quality in trans women: Prevalence and determinants. Human Reproduction (Oxford, England), 35(7), 1529–1536. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/deaa133
  • De Roo, C., Tilleman, K., T'Sjoen, G., & De Sutter, P. (2016). Fertility options in transgender people. International Review of Psychiatry (Abingdon, England), 28(1), 112–119. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2015.1084275
  • De Wert, G., Dondorp, W., Shenfield, F., Barri, P., Devroey, P., Diedrich, K., Tarlatzis, B., Provoost, V., & Pennings, G. (2014). ESHRE Task Force on Ethics and Law 23: Medically assisted reproduction in singles, lesbian and gay couples, and transsexual people. Human Reproduction (Oxford, England), 29(9), 1859–1865. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/deu183
  • Deutsch, M. B., & Feldman, J. L. (2013). Updated recommendations from the world professional association for transgender health standards of care. American Family Physician, 87(2), 89–93. https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2013/0115/p89.html
  • Dhejne, C., Öberg, K., Arver, S., & Landén, M. (2014). An analysis of all applications for sex reassignment surgery in Sweden, 1960–2010: Prevalence, incidence, and regrets. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43(8), 1535–1545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0300-8
  • Dickey, L. M., Budge, S. L., Katz-Wise, S. L., & Garza, M. V. (2016). Health disparities in the transgender community: Exploring differences in insurance coverage. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 3(3), 275–282. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000169
  • Dickey, R. P., Pyrzak, R., Taylor, S. N., Rye, P. H., Lu, P. Y., & Sartor, B. M. (2001). Decision to do IUI or IVF–sperm count? Fertility and Sterility, 76(5), 1086–1087. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(01)02530-4
  • Drobnis, E. Z., & Nangia, A. K. (2017). Psychotropics and male reproduction. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 1034, 63–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69535-8_8
  • Dunne, P. (2017). Transgender sterilisation requirements in Europe. Medical Law Review, 25(4), 554–581. https://doi.org/10.1093/medlaw/fwx028
  • Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. (2015). Access to fertility services by transgender persons: An Ethics Committee opinion. Fertility and Sterility, 104(5), 1111–1115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.08.021
  • EPATH (2020). WPATH, EPATH, USPATH, AsiaPATH, CPATH, AusPATH, PATHA Response to Bell v. Tavistock judgment statement regarding medical affirming treatment including puberty blockers for transgender adolescents. https://epath.eu/joint-statement-regarding-medical-affirming-treatment-including-puberty-blockers-for-transgender-adolescents/
  • Gender Recognition Act (2004). https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2004/7/contents
  • Gilbert, K., Nangia, A. K., Dupree, J. M., Smith, J. F., & Mehta, A. (2018). Fertility preservation for men with testicular cancer: Is sperm cryopreservation cost effective in the era of assisted reproductive technology? Urologic Oncology, 36(3), 92.e1–92–e9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urolonc.2017.11.002
  • Goldman, R. H., Kaser, D. J., Missmer, S. A., Farland, L. V., Ashby, R. K., Ginsburg  ., & E. S., Scout. (2017). Fertility treatment for the transgender community: A public opinion study. Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics, 34(11), 1457–1467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-017-1035-y
  • Goodman, M., Adams, N., Corneil, T., Kreukels, B., Motmans, J., & Coleman, E. (2019). Size and distribution of transgender and gender nonconforming populations: A narrative review. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America, 48(2), 303–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecl.2019.01.001
  • Green, R. (1998). Transsexuals’ children. International Journal of Transgenderism, 2(4), 1–6. http://web.archive.org/web/20070506211157/http://www.symposion.com/ijt/ijtc0601.htm
  • Hamada, A., Kingsberg, S., Wierckx, K., T’Sjoen, G., De Sutter, P., Knudson, G., & Agarwal, A. (2015). Semen characteristics of transwomen referred for sperm banking before sex transition: a case series. Andrologia, 47(7), 832–838. https://doi.org/10.1111/and.12330
  • Hammond-Browning, N. (2019). Uterine transplantation in transgender women: Medical, legal and ethical considerations. BJOG : An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 126(2), 157. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.15482
  • Hembree, W. C., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Gooren, L., Hannema, S. E., Meyer, W. J., Murad, M. H., Rosenthal, S. M., Safer, J. D., Tangpricha, V., & T’Sjoen, G. G. (2017). Endocrine treatment of gender-dysphoric/gender-incongruent persons: An endocrine society clinical practice guideline. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 102(11), 3869–3903. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2017-01658
  • Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act (2008). https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/22/contents
  • Jiang, D. D., Swenson, E., Mason, M., Turner, K. R., Dugi, D. D., Hedges, J. C., & Hecht, S. L. (2019). Effects of estrogen on spermatogenesis in transgender women. Urology, 132, 117–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2019.06.034
  • Jindarak, S., Nilprapha, K., Atikankul, T., Angspatt, A., Pungrasmi, P., Iamphongsai, S., Promniyom, P., Suwajo, P., Selvaggi, G., & Tiewtranon, P. (2018). Spermatogenesis abnormalities following hormonal therapy in transwomen. BioMed Research International, 2018, 7919481. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/7919481
  • Jones, B. P., Alghrani, A., & Smith, J. R. (2019). Re: Uterine transplantation in transgender women: medical, legal and ethical considerations. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 126(4), 545–545. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.15558
  • Jones, B. P., Kasaven, L., Vali, S., Saso, S., Jalmbrant, M., Bracewell-Milnes, T., Thum, M. Y., Quiroga, I., Friend, P., Diaz-Garcia, C., Ghaem-Maghami, S., Yazbek, J., Lees, C., Testa, G., Johannesson, L., Jones, B., & Smith, J. R. (2021). Uterine transplantation: Review of livebirths and reproductive implications. Transplantation, 105(8), 1695–1707. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0000000000003578
  • Jones, B., Rajamanoharan, A., Vali, S., Williams, N. J., Saso, S., Thum, M.-Y., Ghaem-Maghami, S., Quiroga, I., Diaz-Garcia, C., Thomas, P., Wilkinson, S., Yazbek, J., & Smith, J. R. (2020). Uterine transplantation in male to female transgender women; A cross-sectional survey assessing perceptions, acceptability and demand. The Lancet. Available at SSRN https://ssrn.com/abstract=3526304 or https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3526304
  • Jones, B. P., Saso, S., Bracewell-Milnes, T., Thum, M. Y., Nicopoullos, J., Diaz-Garcia, C., Friend, P., Ghaem-Maghami, S., Testa, G., Johannesson, L., Quiroga, I., Yazbek, J., & Smith, J. R. (2019). Human uterine transplantation: A review of outcomes from the first 45 cases. BJOG : An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 126(11), 1310–1319. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.15863
  • Jones, B. P., Saso, S., L’Heveder, A., Bracewell-Milnes, T., Thum, M. Y., Diaz-Garcia, C., MacIntyre, D. A., Quiroga, I., Ghaem-Maghami, S., Testa, G., Johannesson, L., Bennett, P. R., Yazbek, J., & Smith, J. R. (2020). The vaginal microbiome in uterine transplantation. BJOG : An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 127(2), 230–238. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.15881
  • Jones, B. P., Saso, S., Yazbek, J., & Smith, J. R. (2016). Uterine transplantation: Past, present and future. BJOG : An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 123(9), 1434–1438. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.13963
  • Jones, B. P., Williams, N. J., Saso, S., Thum, M. Y., Quiroga, I., Yazbek, J., Wilkinson, S., Ghaem‐Maghami, S., Thomas, P., & Smith, J. R. (2019). Uterine transplantation in transgender women. BJOG : An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 126(2), 152–156. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.15438
  • Jones, C. A., Reiter, L., & Greenblatt, E. (2016). Fertility preservation in transgender patients. International Journal of Transgenderism, 17(2), 76–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2016.1153992
  • Judge, C., O’Donovan, C., Callaghan, G., Gaoatswe, G., & O’Shea, D. (2014). Gender dysphoria–prevalence and co-morbidities in an Irish adult population. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 5, 87. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2014.00087
  • Karasic, D., & Drescher, J. (2006). Sexual and gender diagnoses of the diagnostic and statistical manual (DSM) a reevaluation. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 17(3-4), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1300/J056v17n03_01
  • Kattari, S. K., & Hasche, L. (2016). Differences across age groups in transgender and gender non-conforming people’s experiences of health care discrimination, harassment, and victimization. Journal of Aging and Health, 28(2), 285–306. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264315590228
  • Komeya, M., Sato, T., & Ogawa, T. (2018). In vitro spermatogenesis: A century‐long research journey, still half way around. Reproductive Medicine and Biology, 17(4), 407–420. https://doi.org/10.1002/rmb2.12225
  • Kyweluk, M. A., Sajwani, A., & Chen, D. (2018). Freezing for the future: Transgender youth respond to medical fertility preservation. International Journal of Transgenderism, 19(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2018.1505575
  • Lauterpacht, H. (1948). The universal declaration of human rights. British Yearbook of International Law, 25, 354–381.
  • Lawrence, A. A. (2005). Sexuality before and after male-to-female sex reassignment surgery. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34(2), 147–166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-005-1793-y
  • Lefkowitz, A., Edwards, M., & Balayla, J. (2013). Ethical considerations in the era of the uterine transplant: An update of the Montreal Criteria for the Ethical Feasibility of Uterine Transplantation. Fertility and Sterility, 100(4), 924–926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.05.026
  • Li, K., Rodriguez, D., Gabrielsen, J. S., Centola, G. M., & Tanrikut, C. (2018). Sperm cryopreservation of transgender individuals: Trends and findings in the past decade. Andrology, 6(6), 860–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/andr.12527
  • Li, Y., Lin, H., Li, Y., & Cao, J. (2011). Association between socio-psycho-behavioral factors and male semen quality: Systematic review and meta-analyses. Fertility and Sterility, 95(1), 116–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.06.031
  • Lotz, M. (2016). Commentary on Nicola Williams and Stephen Wilkinson: ‘Should uterus transplants be publicly funded?’ Journal of Medical Ethics, 42(9), 570–571. https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2015-103230
  • Lübbert, H., Leo-Roßberg, I., & Hammerstein, J. (1992). Effects of ethinyl estradiol on semen quality and various hormonal parameters in a eugonadal male. Fertility and Sterility, 58(3), 603–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(16)55271-6
  • Marsh, C., McCracken, M., Gray, M., Nangia, A., Gay, J., & Roby, K. F. (2019). Low total motile sperm in transgender women seeking hormone therapy. Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics, 36(8), 1639–1648. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-019-01504-y
  • Marshall, W. A., & Tanner, J. M. (1970). Variations in the pattern of pubertal changes in boys. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 45(239), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.45.239.13
  • Martinez, F. (2017). Update on fertility preservation from the Barcelona International Society for Fertility Preservation-ESHRE-ASRM 2015 expert meeting: Indications, results and future perspectives. Fertility and Sterility, 108(3), 407–415.e11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2017.05.024
  • Matoso, A., Khandakar, B., Yuan, S., Wu, T., Wang, L. J., Lombardo, K. A., Mangray, S., Mannan, A., & Yakirevich, E. (2018). Spectrum of findings in orchiectomy specimens of persons undergoing gender confirmation surgery. Human Pathology, 76, 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humpath.2018.03.007
  • McBride, J. A., & Coward, R. M. (2016). Recovery of spermatogenesis following testosterone replacement therapy or anabolic-androgenic steroid use. Asian Journal of Andrology, 18(3), 373–380. https://doi.org/10.4103/1008-682X.173938
  • McBride, J. A., & Lipshultz, L. I. (2018). Male fertility preservation. Current Urology Reports, 19(7), 49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11934-018-0803-2
  • McGuinness, S., & Alghrani, A. (2008). Gender and parenthood: The case for realignment. Medical Law Review, 16(2), 261–283. https://doi.org/10.1093/medlaw/fwn010
  • Meerwijk, E. L., & Sevelius, J. M. (2017). Transgender population size in the United States: A meta-regression of population-based probability samples. American Journal of Public Health, 107(2), e1–e8. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2016.303578
  • Mehringer, J., & Dowshen, N. L. (2019). Sexual and reproductive health considerations among transgender and gender-expansive youth. Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care, 49(9), 100684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cppeds.2019.100684
  • Mieusset, R., Bujan, L., Mansat, A., Pontonnier, F., & Grandjean, H. (1987). Hyperthermia and human spermatogenesis: Enhancement of the inhibitory effect obtained by ‘artificial cryptorchidism’. International Journal of Andrology, 10(4), 571–580. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2605.1987.tb00356.x
  • Millar, A., Kim, B. H., Livne-Segev, D., Fung, R., Jarvi, K., & Millar, A. C. (2015). Attitudes, knowledge and beliefs regarding fertility preservation among people of transgendered experience: preliminary results. Canadian Journal of Diabetes, 39(6), 536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcjd.2015.09.040
  • Murad, M. H., Elamin, M. B., Garcia, M. Z., Mullan, R. J., Murad, A., Erwin, P. J., & Montori, V. M. (2010). Hormonal therapy and sex reassignment: A systematic review and meta‐analysis of quality of life and psychosocial outcomes. Clinical Endocrinology, 72(2), 214–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2265.2009.03625.x
  • Murphy, T. F. (2012). The ethics of fertility preservation in transgender body modifications. Journal of Bioethical Inquiry, 9(3), 311–316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11673-012-9378-7
  • Murphy, T. F. (2015). Assisted gestation and transgender women. Bioethics, 29(6), 389–397. https://doi.org/10.1111/bioe.12132
  • Nahata, L., Quinn, G. P., Caltabellotta, N. M., & Tishelman, A. C. (2017). Mental health concerns and insurance denials among transgender adolescents. LGBT Health, 4(3), 188–193. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2016.0151
  • Nahata, L., Quinn, G. P., & Tishelman, A. (2016). A call for fertility and sexual function counseling in pediatrics. Pediatrics, 137(6), e20160180. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-0180
  • Nahata, L., Tishelman, A. C., Caltabellotta, N. M., & Quinn, G. P. (2017). Low fertility preservation utilization among transgender youth. The Journal of Adolescent Health : Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 61(1), 40–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.12.012
  • Neblett, M. F., & Hipp, H. S. (2019). Fertility considerations in transgender persons. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America, 48(2), 391–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecl.2019.02.003
  • Newcomb, M. E., Hill, R., Buehler, K., Ryan, D. T., Whitton, S. W., & Mustanski, B. (2020). High burden of mental health problems, substance use, violence, and related psychosocial factors in transgender, non-binary, and gender diverse youth and young adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(2), 645–659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01533-9
  • Nordkap, L., Jensen, T. K., Hansen, Å. M., Lassen, T. H., Bang, A. K., Joensen, U. N., Blomberg Jensen, M., Skakkebaek, N. E., & Jørgensen, N. (2016). Psychological stress and testicular function: A cross-sectional study of 1,215 Danish men. Fertility and Sterility, 105(1), 174–187.e872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.09.016
  • Nørr, L., Bennedsen, B., Fedder, J., & Larsen, E. R. (2016). Use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors reduces fertility in men. Andrology, 4(3), 389–394. https://doi.org/10.1111/andr.12184
  • Ohlander, S., Hotaling, J., Kirshenbaum, E., Niederberger, C., & Eisenberg, M. L. (2014). Impact of fresh versus cryopreserved testicular sperm upon intracytoplasmic sperm injection pregnancy outcomes in men with azoospermia due to spermatogenic dysfunction: A meta-analysis. Fertility and Sterility, 101(2), 344–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.10.012
  • Olson-Kennedy, J., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Kreukels, B. P., Meyer-Bahlburg, H. F., Garofalo, R., Meyer, W., & Rosenthal, S. M. (2016). Research priorities for gender nonconforming/transgender youth: Gender identity development and biopsychosocial outcomes. Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity, 23(2), 172–179. https://doi.org/10.1097/MED.0000000000000236
  • Pacey, A. A., & Eiser, C. (2011). Banking sperm is only the first of many decisions for men: What healthcare professionals and men need to know. Human Fertility (Cambridge, England), 14(4), 208–217. https://doi.org/10.3109/14647273.2011.634480
  • Pang, K. C., Peri, A., Chung, H. E., Telfer, M., Elder, C. V., Grover, S., & Jayasinghe, Y. (2020). Rates of fertility preservation use among transgender adolescents. JAMA Pediatrics, 174(9), 890–891. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.0264
  • Parikh, N., Chattha, A., Gargollo, P., & Granberg, C. (2021). Fertility preservation: A tale of two testicles. Urology, 153, 298–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2020.11.011
  • Peri, A., Ahler, A., Gook, D., O’Connell, M. A., Bourne, H., Nightingale, M., Telfer, M., Jayasinghe, Y., & Pang, K. C. (2021). Predicting successful sperm retrieval in transfeminine adolescents after testicular biopsy. Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics, 38(10), 2735–2743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-021-02293-z
  • Persky, R. W., Gruschow, S. M., Sinaii, N., Carlson, C., Ginsberg, J. P., & Dowshen, N. L. (2020). Attitudes toward fertility preservation among transgender youth and their parents. The Journal of Adolescent Health : Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 67(4), 583–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.02.027
  • Pfäfflin, F., Bockting, W. O., Coleman, E., Ekins, R., King, D., Gray, N. N., & Pellett, E. (2002). The desire to have children and the preservation of fertility in transsexual women: A survey. International Journal of Transgenderism, 6(3), 97–103.
  • Povey, A. C., Clyma, J. A., McNamee, R., Moore, H. D., Baillie, H., Pacey, A. A., & Cherry, N. M. (2012). Modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for poor semen quality: a case-referent study. Human Reproduction (Oxford, England), 27(9), 2799–2806. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/des183
  • Quain, K. M., Kyweluk, M. A., Sajwani, A., Gruschow, S., Finlayson, C., Gordon, E. J., Johnson, E. K., Persky, R., Dowshen, N., & Chen, D. (2021). Timing and delivery of fertility preservation information to transgender adolescents, young adults, and their parents. The Journal of Adolescent Health : official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 68(3), 619–622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.06.044
  • Reed, B., Rhodes, S., Schofield, P., & Wylie, K. (2009). Gender variance in the UK: Prevalence, incidence, growth and geographic distribution (Technical Report). GIRES – the Gender Identity Research and Education Society. Retrieved June, 8, 2011, from http://www.gires.org.uk/assets/Medpro-Assets/GenderVarianceUK-report.pdf
  • Riggs, D. W., & Bartholomaeus, C. (2018). Fertility preservation decision making amongst Australian transgender and non-binary adults. Reproductive Health, 15(1), 181. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-018-0627-z
  • Rodriguez-Wallberg, K. A., Häljestig, J., Arver, S., Johansson, A., & Lundberg, F. E. (2021). Sperm quality in transgender women before or after gender affirming hormone therapy-a prospective cohort study. Andrology, 9(6), 1773–1780. https://doi.org/10.1111/andr.12999
  • Safer, J. D., Coleman, E., Feldman, J., Garofalo, R., Hembree, W., Radix, A., & Sevelius, J. (2016). Barriers to healthcare for transgender individuals. Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity, 23(2), 168–171. https://doi.org/10.1097/MED.0000000000000227
  • Sanchez, N. F., Sanchez, J. P., & Danoff, A. (2009). Health care utilization, barriers to care, and hormone usage among male-to-female transgender persons in New York City. American Journal of Public Health, 99(4), 713–719. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2007.132035
  • Sato, T., Katagiri, K., Gohbara, A., Inoue, K., Ogonuki, N., Ogura, A., Kubota, Y., & Ogawa, T. (2011). In vitro production of functional sperm in cultured neonatal mouse testes. Nature, 471(7339), 504–507. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09850
  • Schneider, F., Kliesch, S., Schlatt, S., & Neuhaus, N. (2017). Andrology of male‐to‐female transsexuals: Influence of cross‐sex hormone therapy on testicular function. Andrology, 5(5), 873–880. https://doi.org/10.1111/andr.12405
  • Schulze, C. (1988). Response of the human testis to long-term estrogen treatment: Morphology of Sertoli cells, Leydig cells and spermatogonial stem cells. Cell and Tissue Research, 251(1), 31–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00215444
  • Segev-Becker, A., Israeli, G., Elkon-Tamir, E., Perl, L., Sekler, O., Amir, H., Interator, H., Dayan, S. C., Chorna, E., Weintrob, N., & Oren, A. (2020). Children and adolescents with gender dysphoria in israel: Increasing referral and fertility preservation rates. Endocrine Practice : Official Journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, 26(4), 423–428. https://doi.org/10.4158/EP-2019-0418
  • Sermondade, N., Benaloun, E., Berthaut, I., Moreau, E., Prades, M., Béranger, A., Chabbert-Buffet, N., Johnson, N., Lévy, R., & Dupont, C. (2021). Reproductive functions and fertility preservation in transgender women: A French case series. Reproductive Biomedicine Online, 43(2), 339–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rbmo.2021.04.016
  • Shields, J. P., Cohen, R., Glassman, J. R., Whitaker, K., Franks, H., & Bertolini, I. (2013). Estimating population size and demographic characteristics of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth in middle school. The Journal of Adolescent Health : Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 52(2), 248–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.06.016
  • Shumer, D. E., Nokoff, N. J., & Spack, N. P. (2016). Advances in the care of transgender children and adolescents. Advances in Pediatrics, 63(1), 79–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yapd.2016.04.018
  • Stöbel-Richter, Y., Beutel, M. E., Finck, C., & Brähler, E. (2005). The ‘wish to have a child’, childlessness and infertility in Germany. Human Reproduction (Oxford, England), 20(10), 2850–2857. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dei121
  • Stotzer, R. L., Herman, J. L., & Hasenbush, A. (2014). Transgender parenting: A review of existing research. The Williams Institute. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3rp0v7qv
  • Strang, J. F., Jarin, J., Call, D., Clark, B., Wallace, G. L., Anthony, L. G., Kenworthy, L., & Gomez-Lobo, V. (2018). Transgender youth fertility attitudes questionnaire: Measure development in nonautistic and autistic transgender youth and their parents. The Journal of Adolescent Health : Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 62(2), 128–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.07.022
  • Thiagaraj, D., Gunasegaram, R., Loganath, A., Peh, K., Kottegoda, S., & Ratnam, S. (1987). Histopathology of the testes from male transsexuals on oestrogen therapy. Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore, 16(2), 347–348.
  • Tiemessen, C. H., Evers, J. L., & Bots, R. S. (1996). Tight-fitting underwear and sperm quality. Lancet (London, England), 347(9018), 1844–1845. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(96)91670-0
  • Tornello, S. L., & Bos, H. (2017). Parenting intentions among transgender individuals. LGBT Health, 4(2), 115–120. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2016.0153
  • Unger, C. A. (2015). Care of the transgender patient: A survey of gynecologists’ current knowledge and practice. Journal of Women’s Health (2002), 24(2), 114–118. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2014.4918
  • Van Voorhis, B. J. (2007). Clinical practice. In vitro fertilization. The New England Journal of Medicine, 356(4), 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMcp065743
  • Vance, S. R., Jr., Halpern-Felsher, B. L., & Rosenthal, S. M. (2015). Health care providers’ comfort with and barriers to care of transgender youth. The Journal of Adolescent Health : Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 56(2), 251–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.11.002
  • Veale, J. F. (2008). Prevalence of transsexualism among New Zealand passport holders. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 42(10), 887–889. https://doi.org/10.1080/00048670802345490
  • Venizelos, I., & Paradinas, F. (1988). Testicular atrophy after oestrogen therapy. Histopathology, 12(4), 451–454. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2559.1988.tb01961.x
  • Vicari, E., Mongioi, A., Calogero, A., Moncada, M., Sidoti, G., Polosa, P., & D’Agata, R. (1992). Therapy with human chorionic gonadotrophin alone induces spermatogenesis in men with isolated hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism‐long‐term follow‐up. International Journal of Andrology, 15(4), 320–329. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2605.1992.tb01131.x
  • von Doussa, H., Power, J., & Riggs, D. (2015). Imagining parenthood: The possibilities and experiences of parenthood among transgender people. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 17(9), 1119–1131. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2015.1042919
  • Wakefield, B. W., Boguszewski, K. E., Cheney, D., & Taylor, J. F. (2019). Patterns of fertility discussions and referrals for youth at an interdisciplinary gender clinic. LGBT Health, 6(8), 417–421. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2019.0076
  • Wanta, J. W., & Unger, C. A. (2017). Review of the transgender literature: Where do we go from here? Transgender Health, 2(1), 119–128. https://doi.org/10.1089/trgh.2017.0004
  • Wenker, E. P., Dupree, J. M., Langille, G. M., Kovac, J., Ramasamy, R., Lamb, D., Mills, J. N., & Lipshultz, L. I. (2015). The use of HCG‐based combination therapy for recovery of spermatogenesis after testosterone use. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 12(6), 1334–1337. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsm.12890
  • Weyers, S., Verstraelen, H., Gerris, J., Monstrey, S., Santiago, G., Saerens, B., De Backer, E., Claeys, G., Vaneechoutte, M., & Verhelst, R. (2009). Microflora of the penile skin-lined neovagina of transsexual women. BMC Microbiology, 9, 102. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2180-9-102
  • White, T., & Ettner, R. (2007). Adaptation and adjustment in children of transsexual parents. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 16(4), 215–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-006-0591-y
  • Wierckx, K., Stuyver, I., Weyers, S., Hamada, A., Agarwal, A., De Sutter, P., & T'Sjoen, G. (2012). Sperm freezing in transsexual women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(5), 1069–1071. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-0012-x
  • Wilkinson, S., & Williams, N. J. (2016). Should uterus transplants be publicly funded? Journal of Medical Ethics, 42(9), 559–565. https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2015-102999
  • Williams, N. (2016). Should deceased donation be morally preferred in uterine transplantation trials? Bioethics, 30(6), 415–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/bioe.12247
  • Wyns, C., Collienne, C., Shenfield, F., Robert, A., Laurent, P., Roegiers, L., & Brichard, B. (2015). Fertility preservation in the male pediatric population: Factors influencing the decision of parents and children. Human Reproduction (Oxford, England), 30(9), 2022–2030. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dev161