2,432
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Biochemical risk factors of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: from a narrow and controversial approach to an integral approach and precision medicine

&
Pages 1085-1096 | Received 24 Sep 2021, Accepted 20 Dec 2021, Published online: 03 Jan 2022

References

  • Ference BA, Ginsberg HN, Graham I, et al., Low-density lipoproteins cause atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. 1. Evidence from genetic, epidemiologic, and clinical studies. A consensus statement from the European Atherosclerosis Society Consensus Panel. Eur Heart J. 38(32): 2459–2472. 2017.
  • Mach F, Baigent C, Catapano AL, et al. 2019 ESC/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: lipid modification to reduce cardiovascular risk. Eur Heart J. 2020;41(1):111–188.
  • Ravnskov U, de Lorgeril M, Diamond DM, et al. LDL-C does not cause cardiovascular disease: a comprehensive review of the current literature. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2018;11(10):959–970.
  • Collins R, Reith C, Emberson J, et al. Interpretation of the evidence for the efficacy and safety of statin therapy. Lancet. 2016;388(10059):2532–2561.
  • Silverman MG, Ference BA, Im K, et al. Association between lowering LDL-C and cardiovascular risk reduction among different therapeutic interventions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2016;316(12):1289–1297.
  • DuBroff R. A reappraisal of the lipid hypothesis. Am J Med. 2018;131:993–997.
  • Friedewald WT, Levy RI, Fredrickson DS. Estimation of the concentration of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in plasma, without use of the preparative ultracentrifuge. Clin Chem. 1972;18:499–502.
  • Langsted A, Kamstrup PR, Nordestgaard BG. High lipoprotein(a) and high risk of mortality. Eur Heart J. 2019;40:2760–2770.
  • Varbo A, Benn M, Nordestgaard BG. Remnant cholesterol as a cause of ischemic heart disease: evidence, definition, measurement, atherogenicity, high risk patients, and present and future treatment. Pharmacol Ther. 2014;141:358–367.
  • Mortensen MB, Nordestgaard BG. Elevated LDL cholesterol and increased risk of myocardial infarction and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in individuals aged 70–100 years: a contemporary primary prevention cohort. Lancet. 2020;396:1644–1652.
  • Ridker PM, Lonn E, Paynter NP, et al. Primary prevention with statin therapy in the elderly: new meta-analyses from the contemporary jupiter and HOPE-3 randomized trials. Circulation. 2017;135(20):1979–1981.
  • Gencer B, Marston NA, Im KA, et al. Efficacy and safety of lowering LDL cholesterol in older patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet. 2020;396(10263):1637–1643.
  • Postmus I, Deelen J, Sedaghat S, et al. LDL cholesterol still a problem in old age? A Mendelian randomization study. Int J Epidemiol. 2015;44(2):604–612.
  • Iversen A, Jensen JS, Scharling H, et al. Hypercholesterolaemia and risk of coronary heart disease in the elderly: impact of age: the Copenhagen City Heart Study. Eur J Intern Med. 2009;20(2):139–144.
  • Sniderman AD, Islam S, McQueen M, et al. Age and cardiovascular risk attributable to apolipoprotein B, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol or non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. J Am Heart Assoc. 2016;5(10):e003665.
  • Bathum L, Christensen RD, Pedersen LE, et al. Association of lipoprotein levels with mortality in subjects aged 50+ without previous diabetes or cardiovascular disease: a population-based register study. Scand J Prim Health Care. 2013;31(3):172–180.
  • Armitage J, Baigent C, Barnes E, Cholesterol Treatment Trialists’ Collaboration. Efficacy and safety of statin therapy in older people: a meta-analysis of individual participant data from 28 randomised controlled trials. Lancet. 2019;393(10170):407–415.
  • Ulmer H, Kelleher C, Diem G, et al. Why Eve is not Adam: prospective follow-up in 149650 women and men of cholesterol and other risk factors related to cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. J Womens Health. 2004;13(1):41–53.
  • Hamazaki T, Okuyama H, Ogushi Y, et al. Towards a paradigm shift in cholesterol treatment. A re-examination of the cholesterol issue in Japan. Ann Nutr Metab. 2015;66(suppl 4):1–116.
  • Zhou L, Wu Y, Yu S, et al. Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and all-cause mortality: findings from the China health and retirement longitudinal study. BMJ Open. 2020;10(8):e036976.
  • Zeng L, Ye Z, Li Y, et al. Different lipid parameters in predicting clinical outcomes in Chinese statin-naïve patients after coronary stent implantation. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2021;8:638663.
  • Hero C, Svensson A-M, Gidlund P, et al. LDL cholesterol is not a good marker of cardiovascular risk in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Medicine. 2016;33(3):316–323.
  • Mazzone T, Chait A, Plutzky J. Cardiovascular disease risk in type 2 diabetes mellitus: insights from mechanistic studies. Lancet. 2008;371:1800–1819.
  • Hirany S, O’Byrne D, Devaraj S, et al. Remnant-like particle cholesterol concentrations in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and end-stage renal disease. Clin Chem. 2000;46(5):667–672.
  • Kristensen ML, Christensen PM, Hallas J. The effect of statins on average survival in randomised trials, an analysis of end point postponement. BMJ Open. 2015;5(9):e007118.
  • DuBroff R, De Lorgeril M. Cholesterol confusion and statin controversy. World J Cardiol. 2015;7(7):404–409.
  • Brown RE, Welsh P, Logue J. Systematic review of clinical guidelines for lipid lowering in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease events. BMJ Open Heart. 2020;7(2):e001396.
  • DuBroff R, Malhotra A, De Lorgeril M. Hit or miss: the new cholesterol targets. BMJ Evid Based Med. 2021;26:271–278.
  • Matsuzaki M, Kita T, Mabuchi H, et al. Large scale cohort study of the relationship between serum cholesterol concentration and coronary events with low-dose simvastatin therapy in Japanese patients with hypercholesterolemia. Circ J. 2002;66(12):1Page No:10 087–1095.
  • Pacelli F, Doglietto GB, Alfieri S, et al. Prognosis in intra-abdominal infections. Multivariate analysis on 604 patients. Arch Surg. 1996;131(6):641–645.
  • Zhao M, Luo Z, He H, et al. Decreased low-density lipoprotein cholesterol level indicates poor prognosis of severe and critical COVID-19 patients: a retrospective, single-center study. Front Med (Lausanne). 2021;8:585851.
  • Wei X, Zeng W, Su J, et al. Hypolipidemia is associated with the severity of COVID-19. J Clin Lipidol. 2020;14(3):297–304.
  • Netea MG, Demacker PN, Kullberg BJ, et al. Low-density lipoprotein receptor-deficient mice are protected against lethal endotoxemia and severe gram-negative infections. J Clin Invest. 1996;97(6):1366–1372.
  • Sijbrands EJ, Westendorp RG, Defesche JC, et al. Mortality overtwo centuries in large pedigree with familial hypercholesterolaemia: family tree mortality study. BMJ. 2001;322:1019–1023.
  • Diamond DM, Ravnskov U. How statistical deception created the appearance that statins are safe and effective in primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2015;8(2):201–210.
  • Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;360(9326):7–22.
  • Collins R. Post truth medicine: death and disability by disinformation. Anitschkov lecture presented at the Scientific Sessions of the European Atherosclerosis Society. Helsinki. 2021.
  • Cholesterol Treatment Trialists’ Collaboration. The effects of lowering LDL cholesterol with statin therapy in people at low risk of vascular disease: meta-analysis of individual data from 27 randomised trials. Lancet. 2012;380(9841):581–590.
  • Cholesterol Treatment Trialists’ Collaboration. Efficacy and safety of LDL-lowering therapy among men and women: meta-analysis of individual data from 174,000 participants in 27 randomised trials. Lancet. 2015;385(9976):1397–1405.
  • De Backer GG. Editorial: statin therapy in the elderly: less or more? Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2021. Online ahead of print. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/eurjpc/zwaa164.
  • Gitsels LA, Bakbergenuly I, Steel N, et al. Do statins reduce mortality in older people? Findings from a longitudinal study using primary care records. Fam Med Com Health. 2021;9(2):e000780.
  • Reiner Z. Resistance and intolerance to statins. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2014;24(10):1057–1066.
  • Mercep I, Radman I, Trkulja V, et al. Loss of function polymorphisms in SLCO1B1 (c.521T>C, rs4149056) and ABCG2 (c.421C>A, rs2231142) genes are associated with adverse events of rosuvastatin: a case-control study. Eur J Clin Pharamacol. 2021(Oct 19). on line ahead of print.
  • Melhem AL, Chourasia MK, Bigossi M, et al. Common statin intolerance variants in ABVB1 and LILRB5 show synergistic effects on statin response: an observational study using electronic health records. Frontiers Genetics. 2021;12:713181.
  • Sivkov A, Chernus N, Gorenkov R, et al. Relationship between genetic polymorphism of drug transporters and the efficacy of rosuvastatin, atorvastatin and simvastatin in patients with hyperlipidemia. Lipids Health Dis. 2021;20(1):157.
  • Zubiaur P, Benedicto MD, Villapalos-García G, et al. SLCO1B1 phenotype and CYP3A5 polymorphism significantly affect atorvastatin bioavailability. J Pers Med. 2021;11(3):204–218.
  • Krähenbühl S, Pavik-Mezzour I, Von Eckardstein A. Unmet needs in LDL-C lowering: when statins won’t do! Drugs. 2016;76(12):1175–1190.
  • Mann DM, Woodward M, Muntner P, et al. Predictors of nonadherence to statins: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Pharmacother. 2010;44(9):1410–1421.
  • Maningat P, Gordon BR, Breslow JL. How do we improve patient compliance and adherence to long-term statin therapy? Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2013;15(1):291–298.
  • Abramson JD, Rosenberg HG, Jewell N, et al. Should people at low risk of cardiovascular disease take a statin? BMJ. 2013;347(oct22 3):f6123.
  • Chodick G, Shalev V, Gerber Y, et al. Long-term persistence with statin treatment in a not-for-profit health maintenance organization: a population-based retrospective cohort study in Israel. Clin Ther. 2008;30(11):2167–2179.
  • Ho PM, Spertus JA, Masoudi FA, et al. Impact of medication therapy discontinuation on mortality after myocardial infarction. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(17):1842–1847.
  • May HT, Knowlton KU, Anderson JL, et al. High-statin adherence over 5 years of follow-up is associated with improved cardiovascular outcomes in patients with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: results from the IMPRES study. Eur Heart J – Qual Care Clin Outcomes. 2021(Mar 31), Online ahead of print. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1093/ehjqcco/qcab024.
  • Donnelly LA, Doney ASF, Morris AD, et al. Long-term adherence to statin treatment in diabetes. Diabet Med. 2008;25:850–855.
  • Diaconu CC, Iorga RA, Furtunescu F, et al. Statin intolerance: new data and further options for treatment. Curr Opin Cardiol. 2021;36:487–493.
  • Drexel H, Coats AJS, Spoletini I, et al. An expert opinion paper on statin adherence and implementation of new lipid-lowering medications by the ESC Working Group on Cardiovascular Pharmacotherapy: barriers to be overcome. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Pharmacother. 2020;6:115–121.
  • Newman CB, Preiss D, Tobert JA, et al. Statin safety and associated adverse events: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2019 [erratum in Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2019;39:e158];39:e38–e81.
  • Stroes ES, Thompson PD, Corsini A, et al. Statin-associated muscle symptoms: impact on statin therapy - European Atherosclerosis Society Consensus Panel Statement on Assessment, Aetiology and Management. Eur Heart J. 2015;1:1012–1022.
  • Bruckert E, Hayem G, Dejager S, et al. Mild to moderate muscular symptoms with high-dosage statin therapy in hyperlipidemic patients - the PRIMO study. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2005;19:403–414.
  • Nichols GA, Koro CE. Does statin therapy initiation increase the risk for myopathy? An observational study of 32,225 diabetic and nondiabetic patients. Clin Ther. 2007;29:1761–1770.
  • Shepherd J, Blauw GJ, Murphy MB, et al. Pravastatin in elderly individuals at risk of vascular disease (PROSPER): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;360:1623–1630.
  • Ravnskov U, McCully KS, Rosch PJ. The statin-low cholesterol-cancer conundrum. QJM. 2012;105:383–388.
  • Shah RV, Goldfine AB. Statins and risk of new-onset diabetes mellitus. Circulation. 2012;126:e282–4.
  • Swerdlow DI, Preiss D, Kuchenbaecker KB, et al. HMG-coenzyme A reductase inhibition, type 2 diabetes, and bodyweight: evidence from genetic analysis and randomised trials. Lancet. 2015;385:351–361.
  • Frayling TM. Statins and type 2 diabetes: genetic studies on target. Lancet. 2015;385:310–312.
  • Culver AL, Ockene IS, Balasubramanian R, et al. Statin use and risk of diabetes mellitus in postmenopausal women in the Women’s Health Initiative. Arch Intern Med. 2012;172:144–152.
  • Klimentidis YC, Arora A, Newell M, et al. Phenotypic and genetic characterization of lower LDL cholesterol and increased type 2 diabetes risk in the UK Biobank. Diabetes. 2020;69:2194–2205.
  • Burgess S, Timpson NJ, Ebrahim S, et al. Mendelian randomization: where are we now and where are we going? Int J Epidemiol. 2015;44:379–388.
  • Kim JH, Lee HS, Wee JH, et al. Association between previous statin use and Alzheimer’s disease: a nested case-control study using a National Health Screening Cohort. Brain Sci. 2021;11:396–406.
  • Kashani A, Phillips CO, Foody JM, et al. Risks associated with statin therapy: a systematic overview of randomized clinical trials. Circulation. 2006;114:2788–2797.
  • Oesterle A, Laufs U, Liao JK. Pleiotropic effects of statins on the cardiovascular system. Circ Res. 2017;120:229–243.
  • Kosoglou T, Statkevich P, Johnson-Levonas AO, et al. Ezetimibe. A review of its metabolism, pharmacokinetics and drug interactions. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2005;44:467–494.
  • Knopp RH, Gitter H, Truitt T, et al. Effects of ezetimibe, a new cholesterol absorption inhibitor, on plasma lipids in patients with primary hypercholesterolemia. Eur Heart J. 2003;24:729–741.
  • Pandor A, Ara RM, Tumur I, et al. Ezetimibe monotherapy for cholesterol lowering in 2,722 people: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Intern Med. 2008;265:568–580.
  • Turner T, Stein EA. Non-statin treatments for managing LDL cholesterol and their outcomes. Clin Ther. 2015;37:2751–2769.
  • Greig SL, Deeks ED. Alirocumab: a review in hypercholesterolemia. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2016;16:141–152.
  • Szarek M, White HD, Schwartz GG, et al. Alirocumab reduces total nonfatal cardiovascular and fatal events. The ODYSSEY OUTCOMES Trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;73:387–396.
  • Schwartz GG, Steg PG, Bhatt DL, et al. Alirocumab and cardiovascular outcomes after acute coronary syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:2097–2107.
  • Sabatine MS, Guigliano RP, Keech AC, et al. Evolocumab and clinical outcomes in patients with cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2017;376:1713–1722.
  • Bilen O, Ballantyne CM. Bempedoic acid (ETC-1002): an investigational inhibitor of ATP citrate lyase. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2016;18:61.
  • Ray KK, Bays HE, Catapano AL, et al. Safety and efficacy of bempedoic acid to reduce LDL cholesterol. N Engl J Med. 2019;380:1022–1032.
  • Goldberg AC, Leiter LA, Stroes ESG, et al. Effect of bempedoic acid vs placebo added to maximally tolerated statins of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in patients at high risk for cardiovascular disease. The clear wisdom randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2019;322:1780–1788.
  • Bempedoic acid (Nexletol) for lowering LDL-cholesterol. Med Lett Drugs Ther. 2020;62:53–55.
  • Ray KK, Wright RS, Kallend D, et al. Two phase 3 trials of inclisiran in patients with elevated LDL cholesterol. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1507–1519.85.
  • Estruch R, Ros E, Salas-Salvadó J, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a mediterranean diet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil or nuts. N Engl J Med. 2018; (378):e34. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1800389.
  • Camargo A, Delgado-Lista J, Garcia-Rios A, et al. Expression of proinflammatory, proatherogenic genes is reduced by the mediterranean diet in elderly people. Br J Nutr. 2012;108:500–508.
  • Ahmad S, Demler OV, Sun Q, et al. Association of the Mediterranean diet with onset of diabetes in the Women’s Health Study. JAMA Network Open. 2020;3(11):e2025466.
  • Akesson A, Larsson SC, Discacciati A, et al. Low-risk diet and lifestyle habits in the primary prevention of myocardial infarction in men: a population-based prospective cohort study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;64:1299–1306.
  • Chomistek AK, Chiuve SE, Eliassen AH, et al. Healthy lifestyle in the primordial prevention of cardiovascular disease among young women. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;65:43–51.
  • Lv J, Yu C, Guo Y, et al. Adherence to healthy lifestyle and cardiovascular diseases in the Chinese population. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;69:1116–1125.
  • Yang Y-L, Leu H-B, Yin W-H, et al. Adherence to healthy lifestyle improved clinical outcomes in coronary artery disease patients after coronary intervention. J Chin Med Assoc. 2021;84:596–605.
  • Ridker PM, Everett BM, Thuren T, et al. Antiinflammatory therapy with canakinumab for atherosclerotic disease. N Engl J Med. 2017;377:1119–1131.
  • Ridker PM. Effects of interleukin-6 inhibition with Ziltivekimab on biomarkers of inflammation among patients at high risk for atherosclerotic event. Presented at the Scientific Sessions of the American College of Cardiology, Atlanta, GA, 2021.
  • Nidorf SM, Fiolet ATL, Mosterd A, et al. Colchicine in patients with chronic coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2020;383:1838–1847.
  • Bhatt DL, Steg PG, Miller M, et al. Cardiovascular risk reduction with icosapent ethyl for hypertriglyceridemia. N Engl J Med. 2019;380:11–22.
  • Lakshmanan S. Effect of icosapent ethyl on percent atheroma volume in patients with elevated triglycerides on statin therapy – insights from the Evaporate trial. Presented at the Scientific Sessions of the American College of Cardiology, Atlanta, GA, 2021.
  • Goldenberg RM, Cheng AYY, Gilbert JD, et al. The role of icosapent ethyl in cardiovascular risk reduction. Curr Opin Cardiol. 2021;36(5):661–671. online ahead of print.
  • Mason RP, Eckel RH. Mechanistic insights from reduce-it strengthen the case against triglyceride lowering as a strategy for cardiovascular disease risk reduction. Am J Med. 2021;134:1085–1090. online ahead of print. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2021.03.014.
  • Fan H, Zhou J, Yuan Z. Meta-analysis comparing the effect of combined omega-3 + statin therapy versus statin therapy alone on coronary artery plaques. Am J Cardiol. 2021;151:15–24.
  • Steinberg D, Parthasarathy S, Carew TE, et al. Beyond cholesterol. Modifications of low-density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenicity. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:915–924.
  • Mertens A, Holvoet P. Oxidized LDL and HDL: antagonists in atherothrombosis. FASEB J. 2001;15(12):2073–2084.
  • Ichikawa K, Miyoshi T, Osawa K, et al. Increased circulating malondialdehyde-modified low-density lipoprotein level is associated with high-risk plaque in coronary computed tomography angiography in patients receiving statin therapy. J Clin Med. 2021;10(7):1480–1489.
  • Packard CJ. Small dense low-density lipoprotein and its role as an independent predictor of cardiovascular disease. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2006;17(4):412–417.
  • Balling M, Nordestgaard BG, Langsted A, et al. Small dense low-density lipoprotein cholesterol predicts atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in the Copenhagen General Population Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;75(22):2873–2875.
  • Fruchart J-C, Sacks FM, Hermans MP, et al. The residual risk initiative: a call to action to reduce residual vascular risk in dyslipidaemic patients. Diab Vasc Dis Res. 2008;5(4):319–335.
  • Reiner Z. Managing the residual cardiovascular disease risk associated with HDL-cholesterol and triglycerides in statin-treated patients: a clinical update. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2013;23(9):799–807.
  • Ferrari R, Aguiar C, Alegria E, et al. Current practice in identifying and treating cardiovascular risk, with a focus on residual risk associated with atherogenic dyslipidaemia. Eur Heart J. 2016;Suppl C(18):C2–C12.
  • Marston NA, Giugliano RP, Melloni GEM, et al. Association of apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins and risk of myocardial infarction in individuals with and without atherosclerosis. JAMA Cardiol. 2021. on line ahead of print. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2021.5083.
  • Sniderman AD, Navar AM, Thanassoulis G. Apolipoprotein B vs low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol as the primary measure of apolipoprotein B lipoprotein-related risk: the debate is over. JAMA Cardiol. 2021. on line ahead of print. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2021.5080.
  • Stone NJ, Levy RI, Fredrickson DS, et al. Coronary artery disease in 116 kindred with familial type II hyperlipoproteinemia. Circulation. 1974;49(3):476–488.
  • Mundal L, Sarancic M, Ose L, et al. Mortality among patients with familial hypercholesterolemia: a registry-based study in Norway, 1992–2010. J Am Heart Assoc. 2014;3(6):3001236.
  • Neil A, Cooper J, Betteridge J, et al. Reductions in all-cause, cancer, and coronary mortality in statin-treated patients with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia: a prospective registry study. Eur Heart J. 2008;29(21):2625–2633.
  • Holven KB, Narverud I, Lindvig HW, et al. Subjects with familial hypercholesterolemia are characterized by an inflammatory phenotype despite long-term intensive cholesterol lowering treatment. Atherosclerosis. 2014;233(2):561–567.
  • Ravnskov U, De Lorgeril M, Kendrick M, et al. Inborn coagulation factors are more important cardiovascular risk factors than high LDL-cholesterol in familial hypercholesterolemia. Med Hypotheses. 2018;121:60–63.
  • Alonso R, Andres E, Mata N, et al. Lipoprotein(a) levels in familial hypercholesterolemia: an important predictor of cardiovascular disease independent of the type of LDL receptor mutation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63(19):1982–1989.
  • Jansen ACM, Van Aalst-Cohen ES, Tanck MW, et al. The contribution of classical risk factors to cardiovascular disease in familial hypercholesterolaemia: data in 2400 patients. J Intern Med. 2004;256(6):482–490.
  • Jansen ACM, Van Aalst-Cohen ES, Tanck MWT, et al. Genetic determinants of cardiovascular disease risk in familial hypercholesterolemia. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25(7):1475–1481.
  • Burzotta F, Paciaroni K, De Stefano V, et al. G20210A prothrombin gene polymorphism and coronary ischaemic syndromes: a phenotype-specific meta-analysis of 12,034 subjects. Heart. 2004;90(1):82–86.
  • Ravnskov U, De Lorgeril M, Kendrick M, et al. Serious flaws in targeting LDL-C reduction in the management of cardiovascular disease in familial hypercholesterolemia. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2021;14(3):405–406.
  • Chew M, Brizzell C, Abbasi K, et al. Medical journals and industry ties. BMJ. 2014;349(nov28 4):g7197.
  • Sniderman AD, McQueen MJ, Jansen ACM, et al. Letter to the editor: a failure of standardization or a failure of the process of standardization. J Clin Lipidol. 2018;12(5):1325–1326.
  • De Graaf J, Couture P, Sniderman A. A diagnostic algorithm for the atherogenic apolipoprotein B dyslipoproteinemias. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2008;4(11):608–617.
  • Sniderman M, Couture P, De Graaf J. Diagnosis and treatment of apolipoprotein B dyslipoproteinemias. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2010;6(6):335–346.
  • Nordestgaard BG, Varbo A. Triglycerides and cardiovascular disease. Lancet. 2014;384(9943):626–635.
  • Nordestgaard BG. Triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: new insights from epidemiology, genetics, and biology. Circ Res. 2016;118:547–563.
  • Sniderman A, Langlois M, Cobbaert C. Update on apolipoprotein B. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2021;32(4):226–230.
  • Contois JH, Delatour V. Apolipoprotein B measurement: need for standardization. J Clin Lipidol. 2018;12(2):264–265.