292
Views
5
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

The Word Memory Test in medicolegal assessment: a measure of effort and malingering?

&
Pages 220-249 | Received 18 Feb 2018, Accepted 07 Oct 2018, Published online: 09 Nov 2018

References

  • Allen, L., & Green, P. (1999). CARB and WMT effort test scores in 57 patients with severe traumatic brain injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 14, 789.
  • Allen, L. M., Green, P., Cox, D. R., & Conder, R. L. (2006). CARB – Computerized assessment of response bias. Durham, NC: CogniSyst, Inc.
  • Allen, M. D., Bigler, E. D., Larsen, J., Goodrich-Hunsaker, N. J., & Hopkins, R. O. (2007). Functional neuroimaging evidence for high cognitive effort on the Word Memory Test in the absence of external incentives. Brain Injury, 21, 13–14.
  • Armistead-Jehle, P., & Buican, P. (2013). Comparison of select advanced clinical solutions embedded effort measures to the Word Memory Test in the detection of suboptimal effort. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 28(3), 297–301.
  • Armistead-Jehle, P., & Green, P. (2016). Model for the effects of invalid styles of response. Applied neuropsychology: Adult, 23(6), 449–458.
  • Armistead-Jehle, P., Green, P., Gervais, R. O., & Hungerford, L. D. (2015). An examination of the Word Memory Test as a measure of memory. Applied neuropsychology: Adult, 15, 1–12.
  • American Psychiatric Association, 2013. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC.
  • Axelrod, B. N., Meyers, J. E., & Davis, J. J. (2014). Finger tapping test performance as a measure of performance validity. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(5), 876–888.
  • Axelrod, B. N., & Schutte, C. (2010). Analysis of the dementia profile on the medical symptom validity test. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 24, 873–881.
  • Bigler, E. D. (2014). Effort, symptom validity testing, performance validity testing and traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 28(13–14), 1623–1638.
  • Binder, L. M., Larrabee, G. J., & Millis, S. R. (2014). Intent to fail: Significance testing of forced choice test results. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(8), 1366–1375.
  • Blaskewitz, N., Merten, T., & Brockhaus, R. (2009). Detection of suboptimal effort with the Rey Complex Figure Test and Recognition Trial. Applied Neuropsychology, 16(1), 54–61.
  • Blaskewitz, N., Merten, T., & Kathmann, N. (2008). Performance of children on symptom validity tests: TOMM, MSVT, and FIT. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 23(4), 379–391.
  • Boone, K. B. (2009). The need for continuous and comprehensive sampling of effort/response bias during neuropsychological examinations. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23, 729–741.
  • Boone, K. B., Lu, P., Back, C., King, C., Lee, A., Philpott, L., … Warner-Chacon, K. (2002). Sensitivity and specificity of the rey dot counting test in patients with suspect effort and various clinical samples. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 17, 625–642.
  • Bortnik, K. E., Boone, K. B., Marion, S. D., Amano, S., Ziegler, E., Victor, T. L., & Zeller, M. A. (2010). Examination of various WMS-III logical memory scores in the assessment of response bias. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 24(2), 344–357.
  • Bush, S. S., Heilbronner, R. L., & Ruff, R. M. (2014). Psychological assessment of symptom and performance validity, response bias, and malingering: Official position of the association for scientific advancement in psychological injury and law. Psychological Injury and Law, 7, 197–205.
  • Bush, S. S., Ruff, R. M., Tröster, A. I., Barth, J. T., Koffler, S. P., Pliskin, N. H., … Silver, C. H. (2005). Symptom validity assessment: Practice issues and medical necessity. NAN Policy & Planning Committee. Arch Clin Neuropsychol., 20, 419–426.
  • Carone, D. A., Green, P., & Drane, D. L. (2014). Word Memory Test profiles in two cases with surgical removal of the left anterior hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 21, 155–160.
  • Chafetz, M. D., & Biondolillo, A. M. (2013). Feigning a severe impairment profile. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 28(3), 205–212.
  • Cottingham, M. E., Victor, T. L., Boone, K. B., Ziegler, E. A., & Zeller, M. (2014). Apparent effect of type of compensation seeking (disability versus litigation) on performance validity test scores may be due to other factors. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(6), 1030–1047.
  • Davis, J. J., & Wall, J. R. (2014). Examining verbal memory on the Word Memory Test and California verbal learning test-second edition. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(8), 747–753.
  • Denning, J. H. (2012). The efficiency and accuracy of the TOMM trial 1, errors on the first 10 items of the TOMM, and five embedded measures in predicting invalid test performance. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27, 417–432.
  • Drob, S. L., Meehan, K. B., & Waxman, S. E. (2009). Clinical and conceptual problems in the attribution of malingering in forensic evaluations. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 37(1), 98–106.
  • Etherton, J. L., Bianchini, K. J., Ciota, M. A., Heinly, M. T., & Greve, K. W. (2006). Pain, malingering, and performance on the WAIS-III processing speed index. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28, 1218–1237.
  • Fields, K., Hill, B., Slattery, T., & Russ, K. (2015). Chance performance is higher than 50% on the Word Memory Test and test of memory malingering. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 30(6), 483–484.
  • Flaro, L., Green, P., & Allen, L. M. (2000). Symptom validity test results with children: CARB and WMT. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 15, 840.
  • Goodrich-Hunsaker, N. J., & Hopkins, R. O. (2009). Word memory test performance in amnesic patients with hippocampal damage. Neuropsychology, 23(4), 529–534.
  • Gorissen, M., Sanz, J. C., & Schmand, B. (2005). Effort and cognition in schizophrenia patients. Schizophrenia Research, 78, 199–208.
  • Green, P. (2003). Word Memory Test for windows: User’s manual and program. revised 2005. Edmonton: Green’s Publishing.
  • Green, P. (2007a). Spoiled for choice: Making comparisons between forced-choice effort tests. In K. B. Boone (Ed.), Assessment of feigned cognitive impairment (pp. 50–78). New York: The Guilford Press.
  • Green, P. (2007b). The pervasive influence of effort on neuropsychological tests. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America, 18, 43–68.
  • Green, P., & Allen, L. M. (1999). Performance of neurological patients on the Word Memory Test (WMT) and Computerized Assessment of Response Bias (CARB) (supplement to the CARB ’97 and Word Memory Test manuals and CARB/WMT scoring software). Durham, NC: CogniSyst, Inc.
  • Green, P., Lees-Haley, P. R., & Allen, L. M. (2003). The Word Memory Test and the validity of neuropsychological test scores. Journal of Forensic Neuropsychology, 2, 97–124.
  • Green, P., Montijo, J., & Brockhaus, R. (2011). ‘High specificity of the Word Memory Test and medical symptom validity test in groups with severe verbal memory impairment. Applied Neuropsychology, 18, 86–94.
  • Heilbronner, R. L., Sweet, J. J., Morgan, J. E., Larrabee, G. J., & Millis, S. R. (2009). Conference participants. Collaborators (30) American academy of clinical neuropsychology edited by Hosser D, Lauterbach, O., Camehn, K. Diagnostica, 54(3), 129–137.
  • Heyanka, D. J., Thaler, N. S., Linck, J. F., Pastorek, N. J., Miller, B., Romesser, J., & Sim, A. H. (2015). A factor analytic approach to the validation of the Word Memory Test and test of memory malingering as measures of effort and not memory. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 30(5), 369–376.
  • Ingram, P. B., & Ternes, M. S. (2016). The detection of content-based invalid responding: A meta-analysis of the MMPI-2-restructured form’s (MMPI-2-RF) over-reporting validity scales. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 30, 473–496.
  • Institute of Medicine. (2015). Psychological testing in the service of disability determination. Washington: The National Academies Press.
  • Iverson, G., Green, P., & Gervais, R. (1999). Using the Word Memory Test to detect biased responding in head injury litigation. The Journal of Cognitive Rehabilitation, 17, 4–8.
  • Lang, C. J. G., & Quitz, A. (2012). Verbal and nonverbal memory impairment in aphasia. Journal of Neurology, 259, 1655–1661.
  • Larrabee, G. J. (2003). Detection of malingering using atypical performance patterns on standard neuropsychological tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 17(3), 410–425.
  • Larrabee, G. J. (2008). Aggregation across multiple indicators improves the detection of malingering: Relationship to likelihood ratios. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22(4), 666–679.
  • Larrabee, G. J. (2012). Performance validity and symptom validity in neuropsychological assessment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18, 1–7.
  • Lu, P. H., Brauer, Boone, K., Cozolino, L., & Mitchell, C. (2003). Effectiveness of the rey-osterrieth complex figure test and the meyers and meyers recognition trial in the detection of suspect effort. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 17, 426–440.
  • Mendelson, G., & Mendelson, D. (1993). Legal and psychiatric aspects of malingering. Journal of Law and Medicine, 1, 28–34.
  • Neumann-Zielke, L., Bahlo, S., Diebel, A., Riepe, J., Roschmann, R., Schötzau-Fürwentsches, P., & Wetzig, L. (2016). Leitlinie „Neuropsychologische Begutachtung“. Akt Neurol, 43, 158–170.
  • Osmon, D. C., Plambeck, E., Klein, L., & Mano, Q. (2006). The word reading test of effort in adult learning disability: A simulation study. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 20(2), 315–324.
  • Potagas, C., Kasselimis, D., & Evdokimidis, J. (2011). Short-term and working memory impairments in Aphasia. Neuropsychologia, 49, 2874–2878.
  • Rienstra, A., Saan, P. E. J., & Schmand, B. (2009). Reference data for the Word Memory Test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 24, 255–262.
  • Roberson, C. J., Boone, K. B., Goldberg, H., Miora, D., Cottingham, M., & Victor, T. (2013). Cross validation of the b test in a large known groups sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 27, 495–508.
  • Rohling, M. L., Demakis, G. J. (2010). Failure to replicate or just failure to notice. Does effort still account for more variance in neuropsychological test scores than TBI severity? Clin Neuropsychol, 24, 119–136.
  • Rowland, J. A., Miskey, H. M., Brearly, T. W., Martindale, S. L., & Shura, R. D. (2017). Word Memory Test performance across cognitive domains, psychiatric presentations, and mild traumatic brain injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 32, 306–315.
  • Schroeder, R. W., Twumasi-Ankrah, P., Baade, L. E., & Marshall, P. S. (2012). Reliable digit span: A systematic review and cross-validation study. Assessment, 19(1), 21–30.
  • Sharf, A. J., Rogers, R., Williams, M. M., & Henry, S. A. (2017). The effectiveness of the MMPI-2-RF in detecting feigned mental disorders and cognitive deficits: A meta-analysis. J Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 39(3), 441–455.
  • Silk-Eglit, G. M., Stenclik, J. H., Gavett, B. E., Adams, J. W., Lynch, J. K., & Mccaffrey, R. J. (2014). Base rate of performance invalidity among non-clinical undergraduate research participants. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29, 415–421.
  • Slick, D. J., Strauss, E., & Iverson, G. (1999). Diagnostic criteria for malingered neurocognitive dysfunction: Proposed standards for clinical practice and research. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 13(4), 545–561.
  • Stevens, A., Bahlo, S., Licha, C., Liske, B., & Vossler-Thies, E. (2016). Reactiontime as an indicator of insufficient effort: Development and validation of an embedded performance validity parameter. Journal Psychiatric Research, 245, 74–82.
  • Stevens, A., Friedel, E., Mehren, G., & Merten, T. (2008). Malingering and uncooperativeness in psychiatric and psychological assessment: Prevalence and effects in a German sample of claimants. Psychiatry Research, 157, 191–200.
  • Stevens, A., Schneider, K., Liske, B., Hermle, L., Huber, H., & Hetzel, G. (2014). Is subnormal cognitive performance in schizophrenia due to lack of effort or to cognitive impairment? German Journal of Psychiatry, 17, 1–9.
  • Ween, J. E., Verfaellie, M., & Aexander, M. P. (1996). Verbal memory function in mild aphasia. Neurology, 47, 795–801.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.