Publication Cover
Identity
An International Journal of Theory and Research
Volume 17, 2017 - Issue 3
1,540
Views
4
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

A Threatened Identity: The Mental Health Status of Syrian Refugees in Egypt and Its Etiology

, , , &

References

  • Acarturk, C., Konuk, E., Cetinkaya, M., Senay, I., Sijbrandij, M., Cuijpers, P., & Aker, T. (2015). EMDR for Syrian refugees with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: Results of a pilot randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6, 27414. doi:10.3402/ejpt.v6.27414
  • Al Ibraheem, B., Kira, I. A., Aljakoub, J., & Al Ibraheem, A. (2017). The health effect of the Syrian conflict on IDPs and refugees. Peace and Conflict:. Journal of Peace Psychology, 23, 140–152. doi:10.1037/pac0000247
  • Alpak, G., Unal, A., Bulbul, F., Sagaltici, E., Bez, Y., Altindag, A., … Savas, H. A. (2015). Post-traumatic stress disorder among Syrian refugees in Turkey: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice, 19, 45–50. doi:10.3109/13651501.2014.961930
  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV-TR). Washington, DC: Author.
  • Banaji, M. R., & Prentice, D. A. (1994). The self in social contexts. In L. Porter & M. Rosenzweig (Eds.), Annual review of psychology (Vol. 45, pp. 297–332). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews.
  • Betemps, E. J., Smith, R. M., Baker, D. G., & Rounds-Kugler, B. A. (2003). Measurement precision of the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS): A RASCH model analysis. Journal of Applied Measurement, 4, 59–69.
  • Burke, B. L., Martens, A., & Faucher, E. H. (2010). Two decades of terror management theory: A meta-analysis of mortality salience research. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14, 155–195. doi:10.1177/1088868309352321
  • Cloitre, M., Stolbach, B. C., Herman, J. L., Kolk, B. V. D., Pynoos, R., Wang, J., & Petkova, E. (2009). A developmental approach to complex PTSD: Childhood and adult cumulative trauma as predictors of symptom complexity. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22, 399–408. doi:10.1002/jts.20444
  • Connor, P., & Krogstadl, J. M. (2016, June). About six-in-ten Syrians are now displaced from their homes. PEW Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/06/13/about-six-in-ten-syrians-are-now-displaced-from-their-homes/
  • Elhai, J. D., Lindsay, B. M., Gray, M. J., Grubaugh, A. L., North, T. C., & Frueh, B. C. (2006). Examining the uniqueness of frequency and intensity symptom ratings in posttraumatic stress disorder assessment. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 194, 940–944. doi:10.1097/01.nmd.0000243011.76105.4b
  • Elmore, K. C., & Oyserman, D. (2012). If “we” can succeed, “I” can too: Identity-based motivation and gender in the classroom. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 37, 176–185. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.05.003
  • Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York, NY: Norton.
  • Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (2013). Social cognition: From brains to culture. Atlanta, GA: Sage.
  • Galliher, R. V., Jones, M. D., & Dahl, A. (2011). Concurrent and longitudinal effects of ethnic identity and experiences of discrimination on psychosocial adjustment of Navajo adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 47, 509–526. doi:10.1037/a0021061
  • Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
  • Hogg, M. A., Terry, D. J., & White, K. M. (1995). A tale of two theories: A critical comparison of identity theory with social identity theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 58, 255–269. doi:10.2307/2787127
  • Hurvich, M. (2004). Psychic trauma and fears of annihilation. In D. Knafo (Ed.), Living with terror, working with trauma: A clinician’s handbook (pp. 51–66). Lanham, MD: Jason Aronson.
  • Iverach, L., Menzies, R. G., & Menzies, R. E. (2014). Death anxiety and its role in psychopathology: Reviewing the status of a transdiagnostic construct. Clinical Psychology Review, 34, 580–593. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2014.09.002
  • Jefee-Bahloul, H., Moustafa, M. K., Shebl, F. M., & Barkil-Oteo, A. (2014). Pilot assessment and survey of Syrian refugees’ psychological stress and openness to referral for telepsychiatry (PASSPORT Study). Telemedicine and E-Health, 20, 977–979. doi:10.1089/tmj.2013.0373
  • Kazour, F., Zahreddine, N. R., Maragel, M. G., Almustafa, M. A., Soufia, M., Haddad, R., & Richa, S. (2017). Post-traumatic stress disorder in a sample of Syrian refugees in Lebanon. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 72, 41–47. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2016.09.007
  • Kessler, R. C., Borges, G., & Walters, E. E. (1999). Prevalence of and risk factors for lifetime suicide attempts in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 617–626. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.56.7.617
  • Kira, A., Amer, M. M., & Wrobel, N. H. (2014). Arab refugees: Trauma, resilience, and recovery. In S. C. Nassar-McMillan, K. J. Ajrouch, & J. Hakim-Larson (Eds.), A biopsychosocial approach to Arab Americans: Perspectives on culture, development, and health (pp. 179–195). New York, NY: Springer.
  • Kira, I. (2001). Taxonomy of trauma and trauma assessment. Traumatology, 2, 1–14.
  • Kira, I. (2002, August). Suicide terror and collective trauma: A collective terror management paradigm. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Chicago, IL. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/psycextra/316712004-001.pdf&uid=316712004-001&db=PE
  • Kira, I. (2004). Secondary trauma in treating refugee survivors of torture and their families. Torture, 14, 38–44.
  • Kira, I. (2010). Etiology and treatments of post-cumulative traumatic stress disorders in different cultures. Traumatology: An International Journal, 16, 128–141. doi:10.1177/1534765610365914
  • Kira, I., Alawneh, A., Aboumediene, S., Lewandowski, L., & Laddis, A. (2014). Dynamics of oppression and coping from traumatology perspective: The example of Palestinian youth. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology., 20, 385–411. doi:10.1037/pac0000053
  • Kira, I., Alawneh, A. N., Aboumediane, S., Mohanesh, J., Ozkan, B., & Alamia, H. (2011). Identity salience and its dynamics in Palestinians adolescents. Psychology, 2, 781–791. doi:10.4236/psych.2011.28120
  • Kira, I., Ashby, J. S., Lewandowski, L., Alawneh, A. N., Mohanesh, J., & Odenat, L. (2013). Advances in continuous traumatic stress theory: Traumatogenic dynamics and consequences of intergroup conflict: The Palestinian adolescents case. Psychology, 4, 396–409. doi:10.4236/psych.2013.44057
  • Kira, I., Ashby, J. S., Omidy, A. Z., & Lewandowski, L. (2015). Current, continuous, and cumulative trauma-focused cognitive behavior therapy: A new model for trauma counseling. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 37, 323–340. doi:10.17744/mehc.37.4.04
  • Kira, I., Fawzi, M., & Fawzi, M. (2013). The dynamics of cumulative trauma and trauma types in adults patients with psychiatric disorders: Two cross-cultural studies. Traumatology: An International Journal, 19, 179–195. doi:10.1177/1534765612459892
  • Kira, I., Lewandowski, L., Chiodo, L., & Ibrahim, A. (2014). Advances in systemic trauma theory: Traumatogenic dynamics and consequences of backlash as a multi-systemic trauma on Iraqi refugee Muslim adolescents. Psychology, 5, 389–412. doi:10.4236/psych.2014.55050
  • Kira, I., Lewandowski, L., Somers, C., Yoon, J., & Chiodo, L. (2012). PTSD, trauma types, cumulative trauma, and IQ: The case of African American and Iraqi refugee adolescents. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4, 128–139. doi:10.1037/a0022121
  • Kira, I., Lewandowski, L., Templin, T., Ramaswamy, V., Ozkan, B., & Mohanesh, J. (2008). Measuring cumulative trauma dose, types and profiles using a development-based taxonomy of trauma. Traumatology: International Journal, 14, 62–87. doi:10.1177/1534765608319324
  • Kira, I., Shuwiekh, H., & Bujold-Bugeaud, M. (2015). Gender discrimination (GD): A conceptual trauma-based framework for GD and the development of Gender Discrimination Inventory. Psychology, 6, 2041–2070. doi:10.4236/psych.2015.616201
  • Kira, I., Shuwiekh, H., & Bujold-Bugeaud, M. (2017). Toward identifying the etiologies of gender differences in authoritarianism and mental health: An Egyptian study. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 23, 183–188.
  • Kira, I., Templin, T., Lewandowski, L., Ashby, J. S., Oladele, A., & Odenat, L. (2012). Cumulative Trauma Disorder Scale: Two studies. Psychology, 3, 643–656. doi:10.4236/psych.2012.39099
  • Kira, I., Templin, T., Lewandowski, L., Ramaswamy, V., Bulent, O., Mohanesh, J., & Abdulkhaleq, H. (2012). Collective and personal annihilation anxiety: Measuring annihilation anxiety AA. Psychology, 3, 90–99. doi:10.4236/psych.2012.31015
  • Kira, I., & Tummala-Narra, P. (2015). Psychotherapy with refugees: Emerging paradigm. Journal of Loss and Trauma: International Perspectives on Stress and Coping, 20, 449–467. doi:10.1080/15325024.2014.949145
  • Kira, I. A., Lewandowski, L., Ashby, J. S., & Omidy, A. Z. (2015). Development and piloting the MMMM ecological interactive open systems model: A prospective one-year treatment outcome of children of tortured refugees. Psychology, 6, 1277–1296. doi:10.4236/psych.2015.610125
  • Kira, I. A., Omidy, A. Z., & Ashby, J. S. (2014). Cumulative trauma, appraisal, and coping in Palestinian and American Indian adults: Two cross-cultural studies. Traumatology: An International Journal, 20, 119–133. doi:10.1037/h0099397
  • Kira, I. A., Omidy, A. Z., Fawzi, M., Rice, K. G., Fawzi, M., Lewandowski, L., & Bujold-Bugeaud, M. (2015). Are the negative mental health effects of gender discrimination (GD) salient across cultures? Does self-esteem mediate these effects: GD as a continuous traumatic stress and the pathways to its negative dynamics? Psychology, 6, 93–116.
  • Kira, I. A., & Wroble, N. H. (2015). Trauma: Stress, coping, and emerging treatment models. In M. M. Amer & G. H. Awad (Eds.), Handbook of Arab American psychology. New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Kobak, R. (1999). The emotional dynamics of disruptions in attachment relationships: Implications for theory, research and clinical intervention. In J. Cassidy & E. P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory research and clinical applications (pp. 21–43). New York, NY: Guilford.
  • Lee, D. L., & Ahn, S. (2011). Racial discrimination and Asian mental health: A meta-analysis. The Counseling Psychologist, 39, 463–489. doi:10.1177/0011000010381791
  • Mackie, D. M., & Smith, E. R. (2002). From prejudice to inter-group emotions: Differentiated reactions to social groups. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
  • Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. Handbook of Adolescent Psychology, 9(11), 159–187.
  • Markus, H. R. (1977). Self-schemata and processing information about the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 63–78. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.2.63
  • Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (2010). Cultures and selves: A cycle of mutual constitution. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 420–430. doi:10.1177/1745691610375557
  • Nakeyar, C. &., & Frewen, P. (2016). Evidence-based care for Iraqi, Kurdish, and Syrian asylum seekers and refugees of the Syrian Civil War: A systematic review. Canadian Psychology /Psychologie Canadienne, 57, 233–245. doi:10.1037/cap0000067
  • Nandi, C., Elbert, T., Bambonye, M., Weierstall, R., Reichert, M., Zeller, A., & Crombach, A. (2017, March 9). Predicting domestic and community violence by soldiers living in a conflict region. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. Advance online publication. doi:10.1037/tra0000262
  • Ouyang, H. (2013). Syrian refugees and sexual violence. The Lancet, 381, 2165–2166. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61137-X
  • Oyserman, D. (2009). Identity-based motivation: Implications for action-readiness, procedural readiness, and consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19, 250–260. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2009.05.008
  • Oyserman, D., Fryberg, S. A., & Yoder, N. (2007). Identity-based motivation and health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 1011–1027. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.6.1011
  • Palic, S., & Elklit, A. (2011). Psychosocial treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in adult refugees: A systematic review of prospective treatment outcome studies and a critique. Journal of Affective Disorders, 131, 8–23. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.07.005
  • Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 531–554. doi:10.1037/a0016059
  • Penrod, J., Preston, D. B., Cain, R. E., & Starks, M. T. (2003). A discussion of chain referral as a method of sampling hard-to-reach populations. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 14, 100–107. doi:10.1177/1043659602250614
  • Randel, A. E. (2002). Identity salience: A moderator of the relationship between group gender composition and work group conflict. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 749–766. doi:10.1002/job.163
  • Reed, A., II. (2004). Activating the self-importance of consumer selves: Exploring identity salience effects on judgments. Journal of Consumer Research, 31, 286–295. doi:10.1086/422108
  • Shorey, H. S., & Snyder, C. R. (2006). The role of adult attachment styles in psychopathology and psychotherapy outcomes. Review of General Psychology, 10, 1–20. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.10.1.1
  • Shrira, A. (2015). Transmitting the sum of all fears: Iranian nuclear threat salience among offspring of Holocaust survivors. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 7, 364–371. doi:10.1037/tra0000029
  • Shuwiekh, H., Kira, I. A., & Ashby, J. S. (2017, January 23). What are the personality and trauma dynamics that contribute to posttraumatic growth? International Journal of Stress Management. Advance online publication. doi:10.1037/str0000054
  • Smith, T. B., & Silva, L. (2011). Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: A meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58, 42–60. doi:10.1037/a0021528
  • Stein, J. Y., Wilmot, D. V., & Solomon, Z. (2016). Does one size fit all? Nosological, clinical, and scientific implications of variations in PTSD Criterion A. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 43, 106–117. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.07.001
  • Stoeber, J., & Otto, K. (2006). Positive conceptions of perfectionism: Approaches, evidence, challenges. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 295–319. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_2
  • Stryker, S. (1968). Identity salience and role performance: The importance of symbolic interaction theory for family research. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 30, 558–564. doi:10.2307/349494
  • Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of inter-group conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of inter-group relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
  • Weathers, F., Keane, T., & Davidson, J. (2001). The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale: A review of the first ten years of research. Depression and Anxiety, 13, 132–156. doi:10.1002/(ISSN)1520-6394
  • World Health Organization. (2015). Syria crisis—Egypt. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/hac/crises/syr/syria_crisis_snapshot_egypt_june2015.pdf
  • Williams, D. R., Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson, J. S. (2003). Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 200–208. doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.2.200
  • Wohl, M. J., Branscombe, N. R., & Reysen, S. (2010). Perceiving your group’s future to be in jeopardy: Extinction threat induces collective angst and the desire to strengthen the ingroup. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 898–910. doi:10.1177/0146167210372505
  • Yair, G. (2014). Israeli existential anxiety: Cultural trauma and the constitution of national character. Social Identities, 20(4–5), 346–362. doi:10.1080/13504630.2014.1002390

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.