Determinants of Whether or Not Mixtures of Disinfection By-Products are Similar

REFERENCES

• Aggazzotti , G. , Righi , E. , Fantuzzi , G. , Biasotti , B. , Ravera , G. , Kanitz , S. , Barbone , F. , Sansebastiano , G. , Battaglia , M. A. , Leoni , V. , Fabiani , L. , Triassi , M. and Sciacca , S. 2004 . Chlorination by-products (CBPs) in drinking water and adverse pregnancy outcomes in Italy . J. Water Health , 2 : 233 – 247 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amy , G. L. , Chadik , P. A. , Chowdhury , Z. K. , King , P. H. and Cooper , W. J. 1985 . “ Factors affecting incorporation of bromide into brominated trihalomethanes during chlorination ” . In Water chlorination: Chemistry, environmental impacts, and health effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. , Bull , R.J. , Davis , W. P. , Katz , S. , Roberts , M. H. Jr. and Jacobs , V. A. Vol. 5 , 907 – 922 . Chelsea, MI : Lewis .
   Google Scholar
• Amy , G. , Siddiqui , M. , Zhai , W. , Debroux , J. and Odem , W. 1994 . Survey of bromide in drinking water and impacts on DBP formation , Publication 90622 Denver, CO : AWWA Research Foundation and AWWA .
   Google Scholar
• Amy , G. , Siddiqui , M. , Ozekin , K. , Zhu , H. W. and Wang , C. Empirically-based models for predicting chlorination and ozonation by-products: Trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, chloral hydrate, and bromate . University of Colorado Cooperative Agreement No. CX819579 with the Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, EPA/815/R-98/005 . 1998 . Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
   Google Scholar
• Ashby , J. and Paton , D. 1993 . The influence of chemical structure on the extent and sites of carcinogenesis for 522 rodent carcinogens and 55 different human carcinogen exposures . Mutat. Res , 286 : 3 – 74 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashby , J. and Tennant , R. W. 1988 . Chemical structure, Salmonella mutagenicity and extent of carcinogenicity as indicators of genotoxic carcinogenesis among 222 chemical tests in rodents by the U.S. NCI/NTP . Mutat. Res , 204 : 117 – 115 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• AWWA (American Waterworks Association) . 2009 . Chlorine dioxide , Denver, CO : AWWA . AWWA Research Foundation Reports
   Google Scholar
• Backlund , P. , Wondergem , E. , Voogd , K. and de Jong , A. 1989 . Influence of chlorination pH and chlorine dose on the formation of mutagenic activity and the strong bacterial mutagen 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone (MX) in water . Chemosphere , 18 : 1903 – 1911 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baribeau , H. , Krasner , S. W. , Chinn , R. and Singer , P. C. . Impact of biomass on the stability of haloacetic acids and trihalomethanes in a simulated distribution system . Water Quality Technology Conference Proceedings . November 5–9 , Salt Lake City, UT.
   Google Scholar
• Bartsch , H. , Camus , A. and Malaveille , C. 1976 . Comparative mutagenicity of N-nitrosamines in a semi-solid and in a liquid incubation system in the presence of rat or human tissue fractions . Mutat. Res , 37 : 149 – 162 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bieber , T. I. and Trehy , M. L. 1983 . “ Dihalonitriles in chlorinated natural waters ” . In Water chlorination: Environmental impact and health effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. , Brungs , W. A. , Cotruvo , J. A. , Cumming , R. B. , Mattice , J. S. and Jacobs , V. A. Vol. 4 , 85 – 96 . Ann Arbor, MI : Ann Arbor Science .
   Google Scholar
• Bolton , J. L. , Trush , M. A. , Penning , T. M. , Dryhurst , G. and Monks , T. J. 2000 . Role of quinones in toxicology . Chem. Res. Toxicol , 13 : 135 – 160 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolyard , M. , Fair , P. S. and Hautman , D. P. 1993 . Sources of chlorate ion in U.S. drinking water . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 85 : 81 – 88 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bull , R. J. 2000 . Mode of action of liver tumor induction by trichloroethylene and its metabolites, trichloroacetate and dichloroacetate . Environ. Health Perspect , 108 ( suppl. 2 ) : 241 – 259 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bull , R. J. 2009 . “ Drinking water disinfection ” . In Environmental toxicants , 3rd , Edited by: Lippmann , M. Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Bull , R. J. , Robinson , M. , Meier , J. R. and Stober , J. 1982 . Use of biological assay systems to assess the relative carcinogenic hazards of disinfection by-products . Environ. Health Perspect , 46 : 215 – 227 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bull , R. J. and Robinson , M. 1985 . “ Carcinogenic activity of haloacetonitrile and haloacetone derivatives in the mouse skin and lung ” . In Water chlorination: Chemistry, environmental impact and health effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. , Bull , R. J. , Davis , W. P. , Katz , S. , Roberts , M. H. Jr. and Jacobs , V. A. Vol. 5 , 221 – 236 . Chelsea, MI : Lewis .
   Google Scholar
• Bull , R. J. , Stauber , A. J. , Bull , M. E. and DeAngelo , A. B. 2000 . Carcinogenic effects of brominated haloacetates in male b6c3f1 mice, final report , CR-819562 Research Triangle Park, NC : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory .
   Google Scholar
• Bull , R. J. , Krasner , S. W. , Daniel , P. A. and Bull , R. D. 2001 . The health effects and occurrence of disinfection by-products , 2nd , Denver, CO : American Water Works Association and AWWA Research Foundation .
   Google Scholar
• Bull , R. J. , Orner , G. A. , Cheng , R. S. , Stillwell , L. , Stauber , A. J. , Sasser , L. B. , Lingohr , M. K. and Thrall , B. D. 2002 . Contribution of dichloroacetate and trichloroacetate to liver tumor induction in mice by trichloroethylene . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol , 182 : 55 – 65 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bull , R. J. , Sasser , L. B. and Lei , X. C. 2004 . Interactions in the tumor-promoting activity of carbon tetrachloride, trichloroacetate, and dichloroacetate in the liver of male B6C3F1 mice . Toxicology , 199 : 169 – 183 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bull , R. J. , Reckhow , D. A. , Rotello , V. , Bull , O. M. and Kim , J. 2006 . Use of toxicological and chemical models to prioritize DBP research , Denver, CO : American Water Works Association Research Foundation .
   Google Scholar
• Bull , R. J. , Rice , G. , Teuschler , L. and Feder , P. 2009a . Chemical measures of similarity among disinfection by-product mixtures . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 72 : 482 – 493 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bull , R. J. , Aggazzottie , G. and Palumbo , F. 2009b . “ Drinking water treatment with chlorine dioxide and potential heath effects ” . In State of the science of chlorine dioxide in drinking water , Edited by: Gates , D. , Ziglio , G. and Ozekin , K. Denver, CO : AWWA Research Foundation .
   Google Scholar
• California Department of Health Services. 1999. California drinking water: NDMA-related activities, California Department of Health Services http://www.cdph.ca.gov/certlic/drinkingwater/Pages/NDMA.aspx (Accessed: 21 January 2000 ).
   Google Scholar
• Campbell , K. C. M. 2006 . Bromate: Concern for developmental neurotoxicity? . Toxicology , 221 : 205 – 211 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlton , B. D. , Basaran , A. H. , Mezza , L. E. , George , E. L. and Smith , M. K. 1991 . Reproductive effects in Long-Evans rats exposed to chlorine dioxide . Environ. Res , 56 : 170 – 177 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charrois , J. W. A. , Arend , M. W. , Froese , K. L. and Hrudey , S. E. 2004 . Detecting N-nitrosamines in drinking water at nanogram per liter levels using ammonia positive chemical ionization . Environ. Sci. Technol , 38 : 4835 – 4841 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheeseman , M. A. , Machuga , E. J. and Bailey , A. B. 1999 . A tiered approach to threshold of regulation . Food Chem. Toxicol , 37 : 387 – 412 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chevrier , C. , Junod , B. and Cordier , S. 2004 . Does ozonation of drinking water reduce the risk of bladder cancer? . Epidemiology , 15 : 605 – 614 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi , J. and Valentine , R. L. 2002 . N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) from reaction of monochloramine: A new disinfection by-product . Water Res , 36 : 817 – 824 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi , J. and Valentine , R. L. 2003 . Nitrosodimethylamine formation in free-chlorine-enhanced nitrosation of dimethylamine . Environ. Sci. Technol , 37 : 4871 – 4876 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow , B. M. and Roberts , P. V. 1981 . Halogenated by-product formation by ClO2 and Cl2 . J. Environ. Eng , 107 : 609 – 617 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christ , S. A. , Read , E. J. , Stober , J. A. and Smith , M. K. 1996 . Developmental effects of trichloroacetonitrile in corn oil to pregnant Long-Evans rats . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 47 : 233 – 247 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christian , M. S. , York , R. G. , Hoberman , A. M. , Diener , R. M. and Fisher , L. C. 2001 . Oral (drinking water) developmental toxicity studies of bromodichloromethane (BDCM) in rats and rabbits . Int. J. Toxicol , 20 : 225 – 237 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Claxton , L. D. , Pegram , R. A. , Schenck , K. M. , Simmons , J. E. and Warren , S. H. 2008 . Integrated disinfection by-products mixtures research: Salmonella mutagenicity of water concentrates disinfected by chlorination and ozonation/postchlorination . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 71 : 1187 – 1194 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cognet , L. , Duguet , J. P. , Courois , Y. , Border , J. P. and Mallevialle , J. 1987 . “ Mutagenic activity of various drinking water treatment lines ” . In Organic pollutants in water , Advances in chemistry series, No. 214 Edited by: Suffet , I. and Malaiyandi , M. 627 – 640 . Washington, DC : American Chemical Society .
   Google Scholar
• Conolly , R. B. , Kimbell , J. S. , Janszen , D. , Schlosser , P. M. , Kalisak , D. , Preston , J. and Miller , F. J. 2004 . Human respiratory tract cancer risks of inhaled formaldehyde: Dose-response predictions derived from biologically-motivated computational modeling of a combined rodent and human dataset . Toxicol Sci , 82 : 279 – 296 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowman , G. A. and Singer , P. C. 1996 . Effect of bromide ion on haloacetic acid speciation resulting from chlorination and chloramination of aquatic humic substances . Environ. Sci. Toxicol , 30 : 1 – 16 .
   Google Scholar
• Croué , J.-P. and Reckhow , D. A. 1989 . Destruction of chlorination by-products with sulfite . Environ. Sci. Technol , 23 : 1412 – 1419 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daniel , F. B. , Condie , L. W. , Robinson , M. , Stober , J. A. , York , R. G. , Olson , G. R. and Wang , S. R. 1990 . Comparative subchronic toxicity studies of three disinfectants . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 82 : 61 – 69 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeAngelo , A. B. , Daniel , F. B. , Most , B. M. and Olson , G. R. 1996 . The carcinogenicity of dichloroacetic acid in the male Fischer 344 rat . Toxicology , 114 : 207 – 221 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeAngelo , A. B. , Daniel , F. B. , Most , B. M. and Olson , G. R. 1997 . Failure of monochloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid administered in the drinking water to produce liver cancer in male F344/N rats . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 52 : 425 – 445 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeMarini , D. M. , Abu-Shakra , A. , Felton , C. F. , Patterson , K. S. and Shelton , M. L. 1995 . Mutation spectra in Salmonella of chlorinated, chloraminated, or ozonated drinking water extracts: Comparison to MX . Environ. Mol. Mutagen , 26 : 270 – 285 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dolara , P. , Ricci , V. , Burrini , D. and Griffini , O. 1981 . Effect of ozonation and chlorination on mutagenic potential of drinking water . Bull Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 27 : 1 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eder , E. , Henschler , D. and Neudecker , T. 1982 . Mutagenic properties of allylic and alpha, beta-unsaturated compounds: Consideration of alkylating mechanisms . Xenobiotica , 12 : 831 – 848 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feder , P. I. , Ma , Z , Bull , R. J. , Teuschler , L. K. , Schenck , K. M. , Simmons , J. E. and Rice , G. E. 2009a . Evaluating sufficient similarity for disinfection by-product (DBP) similar mixtures via multivariate statistical procedures . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 72 : 468 – 481 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feder , P. I. , Ma , Z , Bull , R. J. , Teuschler , L. K. and Rice , G. E. 2009b . Evaluating sufficient similarity for drinkingwater disinfection by-product (DBP) mixtures with bootstrap hypothesis test procedures . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 72 : 494 – 504 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fristachi , A. and Rice , G. 2007 . Estimation of the total daily oral intake of NDMA attributable to drinking water . J. Water Health , 5 : 341 – 355 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallard , H. and von Gunten , U. 2002 . Chlorination of natural organic matter: Kinetics of chlorination and of THM formation . Water Res , 36 : 65 – 74 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gill , M. W. , Swanson , M. S. , Murphy , S. R. and Bailey , G. P. 2000 . Two-generation reproduction and developmental neurotoxicity study with sodium chlorite in the rat . J. Appl. Toxicol , 20 : 291 – 303 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giller , S. , Le Curieux , F. , Erb , F. and Marzin , D. 1997 . Comparative genotoxicity of halogenated acetic acids found in drinking water . Mutagenesis , 12 : 321 – 328 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glaze , W. H. , Koga , M. , Caneilla , D , Wang , K. , McGuire , M. J. , Liang , S. , Davis , M. K , Tate , C. H. and Aieta , E. M. 1989 . Ozonation by-products. 2. Improvement of an aqueous phase derivatization method for the detection of formaldehyde and other carbonyl compounds formed by the ozonation of drinking water . Environ. Sci. Technol , 23 : 838 – 847 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gold, L. S., Slone, T. H., Manley, M. B., Garfinkel, G. B., and Ames, B. N. 2007. Carcinogen Potency Database (CPDB) http://potency.berkeley.edu/
   Google Scholar
• Gonzalez , F. J. and Shah , Y. M.. 2008 . PPARalpha: Mechanism of species differences and hepatocarcinogenesis of peroxisome proliferators . Toxicology , 246 : 2 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon , G. , Adam , L. and Bubnis , B. 1995 . Minimizing chlorate ion formation in drinking water when hypochlorite ion is the chlorination agent , Denver, CO : AwwaRF and AWWA .
   Google Scholar
• Gruener , N. 1978 . Mutagenicity of ozonated, recycled water . Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol , 20 : 522 – 526 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrington , R. M. , Romano , R. R. , Gates , D. and Ridgway , P. 1995a . Subchronic toxicity of sodium chlorite in the rat . J. Am. Coll. Toxicol , 14 : 21 – 33 .
   Google Scholar
• Harrington , R. M. , Romano , R. R. and Irvine , L. 1995b . Developmental toxicity of sodium chlorite in the rabbit . J. Am. Coll. Toxicol , 14 : 108 – 118 .
   Google Scholar
• Heasley , V. L. , Fisher , A. M. , Herman , E. E. , Jacobsen , F. E. , Miller , E. W. , Ramirez , A. M. , Royer , N. R. , Whisenand , J. M. , Zoetewey , D. L. and Shellhamer , D. F. 2004 . Investigations of the reactions of monochloramine and dichloramine with selected phenols: Examination of humic acid models and water contaminants . Environ. Sci. Technol , 38 : 5022 – 5029 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hery , M. , Hecht , G. , Gerber , J. M. , Gendre , J. C. , Hubert , G. and Rebuffaud , J. 1995 . Exposure to chloramine in the atmosphere of indoor swimming pools . Ann. Occup. Hyg , 39 : 477 – 439 .
   Google Scholar
• Hong , Y. , Liu , S. , Song , H. and Karanfil , T. 2007 . HAA formation during chloramination—Significance of monochloramine's direct reaction with DOM . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 99 ( 8 ) : 57 – 69 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hooth , M. J. , DeAngelo , A. B. , George , M. H. , Boorman , G. A. and Wolf , D. C. 1999 . “ Sodium chlorate treatment results in a dose-dependent increase in rat thyroid follicular cell hyperplasia following subchronic exposure in drinking water ” . In Microbial pathogens and disinfection by-products in drinking water: Health effects and management of risks , Edited by: Craun , G. F. , Hauchman , F. S. and Robinson , D. E. 581 – 585 . Washington, DC : ILSI Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hussain , S. and Osterman-Golkar , S. 1984 . Dose-response relationships for mutations induced in E. coli by some model compounds . Hereditas , 101 : 57 – 68 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyttinen , J. M. , Niittykoski , J. M. and Jansson , K. 1995 . Lack of uniformity in the mutational spectra of chlorhydroxyfuranones in Salmonella typhimurium strain TA100 . Mutagenesis , 10 : 321 – 323 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) . 1999 . Species differences in thyroid, kidney and urinary bladder carcinogenesis , IARC Scientific Publication No. 147 Edited by: Capen , C. C. , Dybing , E. , Rice , J. M. and Wilbourn , J. D. Lyon, , France : IARC Press .
   Google Scholar
• IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) . 2004 . Some drinking water disinfectants and contaminants, including arsenic. Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans , Vol. 84 , Lyon, , France : IARC Press .
   Google Scholar
• IPCS (International Programme on Chemical Safety). 2000. Disinfectants and disinfectant by-products. Environmental Health Criteria 216. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO/IPCS http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc216.htm
   Google Scholar
• Issac , R. A. , Wajon , J. E. and Morris , J. C. 1985 . “ Subbreakpoint modeling of the HOBr-NH3-Org-N reactions ” . In Water chlorination: Chemistry, environmental impact and health effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. , Bull , R. J. , Davis , W. P. , Katz , S. , Roberts , M. H. Jr. and Jacobs , V. A. Vol. 5 , 985 – 998 . Chelsea, MI : Lewis .
   Google Scholar
• Ito , N. , Hiasa , Y. , Tamai , A. , Okajima , E. and Kitamura , H. 1969 . Histogenesis of urinary bladder tumors induced by N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl) nitrosamine in rats . Gann , 60 : 401 – 410 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jensen , J. N. , St. Aubin , J. J. , Christman , R. F. and Johnson , J. D. 1985 . “ Characterization of the reaction between monochloramine and isolated aquatic fulvic acid ” . In Water chlorination: Chemistry, environmental impact and health effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. , Bull , R. J. , Davis , W. P. , Katz , S. , Roberts , M. H. Jr. and Jacobs , V.A. Vol. 5 , 939 – 949 . Chelsea, MI : Lewis .
   Google Scholar
• Kato-Weinstein , J. , Lingohr , M. K. , Orner , G. A. , Thrall , B. D. and Bull , R. J. 1998 . Effects of dichloroacetate on glycogen metabolism in B6C3F1 mice . Toxicology , 130 : 141 – 154 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kato-Weinstein , J. , Stauber , A. J. , Orner , G. A. , Thrall , B. D. and Bull , R. J. 2001 . Differential effects of dihalogenated and trihalogenated acetates in the liver of B6C3F1 mice . J. Appl. Toxicol , 21 : 81 – 89 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knasmüller , S. , Zöhrer , E. , Kronberg , L. , Kundi , M. , Franzén , R. and Schulte-Hermann , R. 1996 . Mutational spectra of Salmonella typhimurium revertants induced by chlorohydroxyfuranones, byproducts of chlorine disinfection of drinking water . Chem. Res. Toxicol , 9 : 374 – 381 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koga , M. , Akiyama , T. and Glaze , W. H. 1991 . Analysis of ozonation by-products produced in drinking water treatment . Toxicol. Ind. Health , 7 : 423 – 432 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koivusalo , M. , Jaakkola , J. K. and Vartiainen , T. 1994 . Drinking water mutagenicity in past exposure assessment of the studies on drinking water and cancer—Application and evaluation in Finland . Environ. Res , 64 : 90 – 101 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Komulainen , H. , Kosma , V. M. , Vaittinen , S. L. , Vartianinen , T. , Kaliste-Korhonen , E. , Lotjonen , S. , Tuominen , R. K. and Tuomisto , J. 1997 . Carcinogenicity of the drinking water mutagen 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone in the rat . JNCI , 89 : 848 – 856 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kool , H. J. and Hrubec , J. 1986 . The influence of ozone, chlorine and chlorine dioxide treatment on mutagenic activity in (drinking) water . Ozone Sci. Eng , 8 : 217 – 234 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kool , J. L. , Carpenter , J. C. and Fields , B. S. 1999 . Effect of monochloramine disinfection of municipal drinking water on risk of Legionnaires’ disease . Lancet , 353 : 272 – 277 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krasner , S. W. , McGuire , M. J. , Jacangelo , J. G. , Patania , N. L. , Regan , K. M. and Aieta , E. M. 1989 . The occurrence of disinfection by-products in U.S. drinking water . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 81 : 41 – 53 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krasner , S. W. , Sclimenti , M. J. and Coffey , B. M. 1993 . Testing biologically active filters for removing aldehydes formed during ozonation . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 85 : 62 – 71 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krasner , S. W. , Sclimenti , M. J. and Means , E. G. 1994 . Quality degradation: Implications for DBP formation . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 86 : 34 – 47 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krasner , S. W. , Croué , J. P. , Buffle , J. and Perdue , E. M. 1996 . Three approaches for characterizing NOM . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 88 : 66 – 79 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krasner , S. W. , Weinberg , H. S. , Richardson , S. D. , Pastor , S. J. , Chinn , R. , Sclimenti , M. J. , Onstad , G. D. and Thruston , A. D. Jr. 2006 . Occurrence of a new generation of disinfection by-products . Environ. Sci. Technol , 40 : 7175 – 7185 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroes , R. , Galli , C. , Munro , I. , Schilter , B. , Tran , L.-A. , Walker , R. and Würtzen , G. 2000 . Threshold of toxicological concern for chemical substances present in the diet: A practical tool for assessing the need for toxicity testing . Food Chem. Toxicol , 38 : 255 – 312 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kronberg , L. and Christman , R. F. 1989 . Chemistry of mutagenic by-products of water chlorination . Sci. Total Environ , 81–82 : 219 – 230 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaLonde , R. T. and Leo , H. R. 1994 . Interactive chlorine-by-bromine and hydrogen-by-hydroxyl group replacement effects in 2(5H)-furanone mutagenicity . Chem. Res. Toxicol , 7 : 779 – 783 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaLonde , R. T. , Cook , G. P. , Perakyla , H. and Dence , C. W. 1991a . Effect on mutagenicity of the stepwise removal of hydroxyl group and chlorine atoms from 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone: 13C NMR chemical shifts as determinants of mutagenicity . Chem. Res. Toxicol , 4 : 35 – 40 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaLonde , R. T. , Cook , G. P. , Perakyla , H. and Bu , L. 1991b . Structure–activity relationships of bacterial mutagens related to 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone: An emphasis on the effect of stepwise removal of chlorine from the dichloromethyl group . Chem. Res. Toxicol , 4 : 540 – 545 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaLonde , R. T. , Bu , L. , Henwookd , A. , Fiumano , J. and Zhang , L. 1997 . Bromine-, chlorine-, and mixed halogen substituted 4-methyl-2(5H)-furanones: Synthesis and mutagenic effects of halogen and hydroxyl group replacements . Chem. Res. Toxicol , 10 : 1427 – 1436 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leenheer , J. A. , Croue , J.-P. , Benjamin , M. , Korshin , G. V. , Hwang , C. J. , Bruchet , A. and Aiken , G. R. 2000 . “ Comprehensive isolation of natural organic matter from water for spectral characterization and reactivity testing ” . In Natural organic matter and disinfection by-products: Characterization and control in drinking water , American Chemical Society Symposium Series 761 Edited by: Barrett , S. E. , Krasner , S. W. and Amy , G. L. 68 – 83 . Washington, DC : ACS .
   Google Scholar
• Leenheer , J. A. , Aiken , G. R. , Woodside , G. and O'Connor-Patel , K. 2007 . DOM in recharge waters of the Santa Ana River Basin . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 99 : 118 – 131 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lijinksy , W. 1999 . N-Nitroso compounds in the diet . Mutat. Res , 443 : 129 – 138 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lingohr , M. K. , Thrall , B. D. and Bull , R. J. 2001 . Effects of dichloroacetate (DCA) on serum insulin levels and insulin-controlled signaling proteins in livers of B6C3F1 mice . Toxicol. Sci , 59 : 178 – 184 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loper , J. C. , Lang , D. R. , Schoeny , R. S. , Richmond , B. B. , Gallagher , P. M. and Smith , C. C. 1978 . Residue organic mixtures from drinking water show in vitro mutagenic and transforming activity . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 4 : 919 – 938 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucas , L. T. , Gatehouse , D. and Shuker , D. E. 1999 . Efficient nitroso group transfer from N-nitrosindoles to nucleotides and 2′-deoxyguanosine at physiological pH. A new pathway for N-nitroso compounds to exert genotoxicity . J. Biol. Chem , 274 : 18319 – 18326 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCann , J. , Gold , L. S. , Horn , L. , McGill , R. , Graedel , T. E. and Kaldor , J. 1988 . Statistical analysis of Salmonella test data and comparison to results of animal cancer tests . Mutat. Res , 205 : 183 – 195 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClellan , J. N. , Reckhow , D. A. , Tobiason , J. E. , Edzwald , J. K. and Smith , D. B. 2000 . “ A comprehensive kinetic model for chlorine decay and chlorination by-product formation ” . In Natural organic matter and disinfection by-products: Cauterization and control in drinking water , American Chemical Society Symposium Series Publication No.761 Edited by: Barrett , S. E. , Krasner , S.W. and Amy , G.L. 223 – 246 . . Washington, DC : ACS .
   Google Scholar
• McDorman , K. S. , Hooth , M. J. , Starr , T. B. and Wolf , D. C. 2003 . Analysis of preneoplastic and neoplastic renal lesions in Tsc2 mutant Long-Evans (Eker) rats following exposure to a mixture of drinking water disinfection by-products . Toxicology , 187 : 1 – 12 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGeehin , M. A. , Reif , J. S. , Becher , J. C. and Mangione , E. J. 1993 . Case-control study of bladder cancer and water disinfection by-products in Colorado . Am J. Epidemiol , 138 : 492 – 501 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meggs , W. J. , Elsheik , T. , Metzger , W. J. , Albernaz , M. and Bloch , R. M. 1996 . Nasal pathology and ultrastructure in patients with chronic airway inflammation (RADS and RUDS) following irritant exposure . Clin. Toxicol , 34 : 383 – 396 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier , J. R. 1988 . Genotoxic activity of organic chemicals in drinking water . Mutat. Res. , 196 : 211 – 245 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier , J. R. 1990 . “ Mutagens in chlorinated water ” . In Mutation and the environment, part E: Environmental genotoxicity, risk, and modulation , Edited by: Mendelsohn , M. L. and Albertini , R. J. 11 – 19 . Wilmington, DE : Wiley-Liss .
   Google Scholar
• Meier , J. R. , Lingg , R. D. and Bull , R. J. 1983 . Formation of mutagens following chlorination of humic acid. A model for mutagen formation during drinking water treatment . Mutat. Res , 118 : 25 – 41 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier , J. R. , Ringhand , H. P. , Coleman , W. E. , Munch , J. W. , Streicher , R. P. , Kaylor , W. H. and Schenk , K. M. 1985 . Identification of mutagenic compounds formed during chlorination of humic acid . Mutat. Res , 157 : 111 – 122 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier , J. R. , Knohl , R. B. , Coleman , W. E. , Ringhand , H. P. , Munch , J. W. , Kaylor , W. H. , Streicher , R. P. and Kopfler , F. C. 1987 . Studies on the potent bacterial mutagen, 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone: Aqueous stability, XAD recovery and analytical determination in drinking water and in chlorinated humic acid solutions . Mutat. Res , 189 : 363 – 373 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier , J. R. 1998 . Genotoxic activity of organic chemicals in drinking water . Mutat. Res , 196 : 211 – 245 .
   Google Scholar
• Merdink , J. L. , Bull , R. J. and Schultz , I. R. 2001 . Toxicokinetics of bromodichloroacetate in B6C3F1 mice . J. Appl. Toxicol , 21 : 53 – 57 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mills , C. J. , Bull , R. J. , Cantor , K. P. , Reif , J. , Hrudey , S. E. and Huston , P. 1998 . Workshop report. Health risks of drinking water chlorination by-products: Report of an expert working group . Chron. Dis. Can , 19 : 91 – 102 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Miltner , R. J. , Shukairy , H. B. and Summers , R. S. 1992 . Disinfection by-product formation and control by ozonation and biotreatment . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 84 : 53 – 62 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitch , W. A. and Sedlak , D. L. 2002a . Formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) from dimethylamine during chlorination . Environ. Sci. Technol , 36 : 588 – 595 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitch , W. A. and Sedlak , D. L. 2002b . Factors controlling nitrosamine formation during wastewater chlorination . Water Sci. Technol. , 2 : 191 – 198 .
   Google Scholar
• Mobley , S. A. , Taylor , D. H. , Laurie , R. D. and Pfohl , R. J. 1990 . “ Chlorine dioxide depresses T3 uptake and delays development of locomotor activity in young rats ” . In Water chlorination: Chemistry, environmental impact and health effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. , Condie , L. W. , Johnson , J. D. , Katz , S. , Minear , R. A. , Mattice , J.S. and Jacobs , V. A. Vol. 6 , 347 – 358 . Chelsea, MI : Lewis .
   Google Scholar
• Morris , R. D. , Audet , A. M. , Angelillo , I. F. , Chalmers , T. C. and Mosteller , F. 1992 . Chlorination, chlorination by-products and cancer: A meta-analysis . Am. J. Public Health , 82 : 955 – 963 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munro , I. C. , Ford , R. A. , Kennepohl , E. and Sprenger , J. G. 1996 . Correlation of structural class with no-observed-effect levels: A proposal for establishing a threshold of concern . Food Chem. Toxicol , 34 : 829 – 867 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Najm , I. and Krasner , S. W. 1995 . Effects of bromide and NOM on by-product formation . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 87 : 106 – 115 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Najm, I., and Trussell, R. R. 2000. NDMA formation in water and waste water. Proceedings of the AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, Salt Lake City, November 2000 http://www.harza.com/pdf/NDMA_formation.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Narotsky , M. G. , Pegram , R. A. and Kavlock , R. J. 1997 . Effect of dosing vehicle on the developmental toxicity of bromodichloromethane and carbon tetrachloride in rats . Fundam. Appl. Toxicol , 40 : 30 – 36 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• National Cancer Institute . Bioassay of chloropicrin for possible carcinogenicity . Carcinogenesis Technical Report Series No. 65, DHEW Publication No. (NIH) 78–1315 . 1978 . Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare
   Google Scholar
• National Research Council . 1998 . “ Managing disinfection by-products in reuse systems ” . In Issues in potable reuse: The viability of augmenting drinking water supplies with reclaimed wastewater , 53 – 58 . Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
   Google Scholar
• National Toxicology Program. 1987. Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of bromodichloromethane (CAS No. 75–27–4) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (Gavage studies). Technical Report Series No. 321, NIH Publication No. 88–2537, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Toxicology Program http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/htdocs/LT_rpts/tr321.pdf
   Google Scholar
• National Toxicology Program. 2005. Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of sodium chlorate in (CAS No. 7775–09–9) F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (Drinking water studies). Technical Report Series No. 517, NIH No. 06–4457, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Toxicology Program http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/files/517_Web.pdf
   Google Scholar
• National Toxicology Program. 2006a. Short-term reproductive and developmental toxicity of bromodichloromethane administered in the drinking water to Sprague-Dawley rats. NTP Study No.RDGT94017, Abstract, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Toxicology Program http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/index.cfm?objectid=070EC97E-B871-16C6-1C7596B55DF73B20 (Accessed: 10 April 2006 ).
   Google Scholar
• National Toxicology Program. 2006b. Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of bromodichloromethane (CAS No. 75–27–4) in Male F344/N rats and female B6C3F1 mice (Drinking water studies). Technical Report Series No. 532, NIH No. 06–4468, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Toxicology Program http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/files/532_Web.pdf
   Google Scholar
• National Toxicology Program. 2007a. Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of dibromoacetic (CAS No. 631–64–1) Acid in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (Drinking water studies), Technical Report Series No. 537, NIH No. 07–4475, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Toxicology Program http://ntp.niehs.gov/files/537_FINAL_web.pdf
   Google Scholar
• National Toxicology Program . 2007b . Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of dibromoacetonitrile in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (Drinking water studies). Technical Report Series No. 544, CAS No. 3252–43–5 , Washington, DC : National Toxicology Program .
   Google Scholar
• National Toxicology Program. 2008. Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of bromochloroacetic acid in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (Drinking water studies), Draft. Technical Report Series No. 549, CAS No. 5589–96–8. Washington, DC: National Toxicology Program http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/index.cfm?objectid=82F00224-F1F6-975E-7C0A4D903E12624D
   Google Scholar
• Nieuwenhuijsen , M. J. , Toledano , M. B. , Eaton , N. E. , Fawell , J. and Elliott , P. 2000 . Chlorination disinfection byproducts in water and their association with adverse reproductive outcomes: A review . Occup. Environ. Med , 57 : 73 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nikolaou , A. D. , Golfinopoulos , S. K. , Lekkas , T. D. and Kostopoulou , M. N. 2004 . DBP levels in chlorinated drinking water: Effect of humic substances . Environ. Monit. Assess , 93 : 301 – 319 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nightingale , Z. D. , Lancha , A. H. Jr. , Handelman , S. K. , Dolnikowski , G. G. , Busse , S. C. , Dratz , E. A. , Blumberg , J. B. and Handelman , G. J. 2000 . Relative reactivity of lysine and other peptide-bound amino acids to oxidation by hypochlorite . Free Radical Biol. Med , 29 : 425 – 433 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olin , A. C. , Granung , G. , Hagberg , S. , Adriansson , M. , Brisman , J. , Dalander , O. , Karlsson , B. and Toren , K. 2002 . Respiratory health among bleachery workers exposed to ozone and chlorine dioxide . Scand. J. Work Environ Health , 28 : 117 – 123 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oliver , B. G. 1980 . “ Effect of temperature, pH, and bromide concentration on the trihalomethane reaction of chlorine with aquatic humic material ” . In Water chlorination: Environmental impact and health effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. , Brungs , W. A. , Cumming , R. B. and Jacobs , V. A. Vol. 3 , 141 – 149 . Ann Arbor, MI : Ann Arbor Science .
   Google Scholar
• Orme , J. , Taylor , D. H. , Laurie , R. D. and Bull , R. J. 1985 . Effects of chlorine dioxide on thyroid function in neonatal rats . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 15 : 315 – 322 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parodi , S. , Taningher , M. , Russo , P. , Pala , M. , Vecchio , D. , Fassina , G. and Santi , L. 1983 . Quantitative predictivity of the transformation in vitro assay compared with the Ames test . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 12 : 483 – 510 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parrish , J. M. , Austin , E. W. , Stevens , D. K. , Kinder , D. H. and Bull , R. J. 1996 . Haloacetate-induced oxidative damage to the DNA in the liver of male B6C3F1 mice . Toxicology , 110 : 103 – 111 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pegram , R. A. , Andersen , M. E. , Warren , S. H. , Ross , T. M. and Claxton , L. D. 1997 . Glutathione S-transferase-mediated mutagenicity of trihalomethanes in Salmonella typhimurium: Contrasting results with bromodichloromethane and chloroform . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol , 144 : 183 – 188 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pereira , M. A. , Lin , L.-H. and Mattox , J. K. 1984 . Haloacetonitrile excretion as thiocyanate and inhibition of dimethylnitrosamine demethylase: A proposed metabolic scheme . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 13 : 633 – 641 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plewa , M. J. , Wagner , E. D. , Jazwierska , P. , Richardson , S. D. , Chen , P. H. and McKague , A. B. 2004 . Halonitromethane drinking water disinfection by-products: Chemical characterization and mammalian cell cytotoxicity and genotoxicity . Environ. Sci. Technol , 38 : 62 – 68 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poon , R. , Chu , I. , LeBel , G. , Yagminas , A. and Valli , V. E. 2003 . Effects of dibromoacetonitrile on rats following 13-week drinking water exposure . Food Chem. Toxicol , 41 : 1051 – 1061 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radomski , J. L. , Greenwald , D. , Hearn , W. L. , Block , N. L. and Woods , F. M. 1978 . Nitrosamine formation in bladder infections and its role in the etiology of bladder cancer . J. Urol , 120 : 48 – 50 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reckhow , D. A. and Singer , P. C. 1985 . “ Mechanisms of organic halide formation during fulvic acid chlorination and implications with respect to ozone ” . In Water chlorination: Chemistry, environmental impact and health effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. , Bull , R. J. , Davis , W. P. , Katz , S. , Roberts , M. H. Jr. and Jacobs , V. A. Vol. 5 , 1229 – 1257 . Chelsea, MI : Lewis .
   Google Scholar
• Richardson , S. D. 1998 . “ Drinking water disinfection by-products ” . In the encyclopedia of environmental analysis and remediation , Edited by: Meyers , R. A. Vol. 3 , 1398 – 1421 . New York : John Wiley and Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Richardson , S. D. , Thruston , A. D. Jr. , Caughran , T. V. , Chen , P. H. , Collette , T. W. , Floyd , T. L. , Schenck , K. M. , Lykins , B. W. Jr. , Sun , G.-R. and Majetich , G. 1999 . Identification of new ozone disinfection byproducts in drinking water . Environ. Sci. Technol , 33 : 3368 – 3377 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson , S. D. , Plewa , M. J. , Wagner , E. D. , Schoeny , R. and DeMarini , D. M. 2007 . Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: A review and a roadmap for research . Mutat. Res , 636 : 178 – 242 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson , S.D. , Thurston , A.D. , Krasner , S.W. , Weinberg , H.S. , Mltner , R.J. , Schneck , K.M. , Narotsky , M.G. , mcKague , AB and Simmons , J.E. 2008 . Integrated disinfection by-products mixtures research: Comprehensive characterization of water concentrates prepared from chlorinated and ozonated/postchlorinated drinking water . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 71 : 1165 – 1186 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson , M. , Bull , R. J. , Olson , G. R. and Stober , J. 1989 . Carcinogenic activity associated with halogenated acetones and acroleins in the mouse skin assay . Cancer Lett , 48 : 197 – 203 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez , M. J. , Serodes , J. B. and Levallois , P. 2004 . Behavior of trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids in a drinking water distribution system . Water Res , 38 : 4367 – 4382 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez , M. J. , Serodes , J. and Roy , D. 2007 . Formation and fate of haloacetic acids (HAAs) within the water treatment plant . Water Res , 41 : 4222 – 4232 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosario-Ortiz , F. L. , Snyder , S. A. and Suffet , I. H. 2007 . Characterization of dissolved organic matter in drinking water sources impacted by multiple tributaries . Water Res , 41 : 4115 – 4128 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosen , J. D. , Segall , Y. and Casida , J. E. 1980 . Mutagenic potency of haloacroleins and related compounds . Mutat. Res. , 78 : 113 – 119 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sadiq , R. and Rodriguez , M. J. 2004 . Fuzzy synthetic evaluations of disinfection by-products—A risk based indexing system . J. Environ. Manage , 73 : 1 – 13 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savitz , D. A. , Singer , P. C. , Herring , A. H. , Hartmann , K. E. , Weinberg , H. S. and Makarushka , C. 2006 . Exposure to drinking water disinfection by-products and pregnancy loss . Am. J. Epidemiol , 164 : 1043 – 1051 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schenck , K. M. , Sivagnasen , M. and Rice , G. 2009 . Correlations of water quality parameters with mutagenicity of chlorinated drinking water samples . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 72 : 461 – 467 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlosser , P. M. , Lilly , P. D. , Conolly , R. B. , Janszen , D. B. and Kimbell , J. S. 2003 . Benchmark dose risk assessment for formaldehyde using airflow modeling and a single-compartment, DNA–protein cross-link dosimetry model to estimate human equivalent doses . Risk Anal , 23 : 473 – 487 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Segall , Y. , Kimmel , E. C. , Dohn , D. R. and Casida , J. E. 1985 . 3-Substituted 2-halopropenals: mutagenicity, detoxification and formation from 3-substituted 2,3-dihalopropanal promutagens . Mutat. Res , 158 : 61 – 68 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shih , K. L. and Lederberg , J. 1976 . Chloramine mutagenesis in Bacillus subtilis . Science , 192 : 1141 – 1143 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shukairy , H. M. , Miltner , R. J. and Summers , R. S. 1995 . Bromide's effect on DBP formation, speciation and control: Part 2, biotreatment . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 87 : 71 – 82 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simmons , J. E. , Teuschler , L. K. and Gennings , C. 2001 . “ The toxicology of disinfection by-product mixtures: methods for multi-chemical assessment, present research efforts, and future research needs ” . In Microbial pathogens and disinfection by-products in drinking water: Health effects and management of risks , Edited by: Craun , G. F. , Hauchman , F. S. and Robinson , D. E. 325 – 340 . Washington, DC : ILSI Press .
   Google Scholar
• Singer , G. M. , Lijinsky , W. , Buettner , L. and McClusky , G. A. 1981 . Relationship of rat urinary metabolites of N-nitrosomethyl-N-alkylamine to bladder carcinogenesis . Cancer Res , 41 : 4942 – 4946 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singer , P. C. 1994 . Control of disinfection by-products in drinking water . J. Environ. Eng , 120 : 727 – 744 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singer , P. C. , Obolensky , A. and Greiner , A. 1995 . DBPs in chlorinated North Carolina drinking waters . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 87 : 83 – 92 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , M. K. , Randall , J. L. , Stober , J. A. and Read , E. J. 1989 . Developmental toxicity of dichloroacetonitrile: A by-product of drinking water chlorination . Fundam. Appl. Toxicol , 12 : 765 – 772 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sohn , J. , Amy , G. and Yoon , Y. 2007 . Process-train profiles of NOM through a drinking water treatment plant . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 99 : 145 – 153 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solarik , G. , Summers , Sohn , J. , Swanson , W. J. , Chowdhury , Z. K. and Amy , G. L. 2000 . “ Extensions and verifications of the water treatment model for DBP formation ” . In Natural organic matter and disinfection by-products: Characterization and control in drinking water , American Chemical Society Symposium Series Publication No. 761 Edited by: Barrett , S. E. , Krasner , S.W. and Amy , G. L. 47 – 66 . Washington, DC : ACS .
   Google Scholar
• Stauber , A. J. and Bull , R. J. 1997 . Differences in phenotype and cell replicative behavior of hepatic tumors induced by dichloroacetate (DCA) and trichloroacetate (TCA) . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol , 144 : 235 – 246 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stauber , A. J. , Bull , R. J. and Thrall , B. D. 1998 . Dichloroacetate and trichloroacetate promote clonal expansion of anchorage-independent hepatocytes in vivo and in vitro . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol , 150 : 287 – 294 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens , A. A. , Moore , L. A. and Miltner , R. J. 1989 . Formation and control of non-trihalomethane disinfection by-products . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 81 : 54 – 60 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Summers , R. S. , Hooper , S. M. , Shukairy , H. M. , Solarik , G. and Owen , D. 1996 . Assessing DBP yield: uniform formation conditions . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 88 : 80 – 93 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki , N. and Nakanishi , J. 1995 . Brominated analogues of MX (3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone in chlorinated drinking water . Chemosphere , 3 : 1557 – 1564 .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , D. H. and Pfohl , R. J. 1985 . “ Effects of chlorine dioxide on neurobehavioral development of rats ” . In Water chlorination: Chemistry, environmental impact and health effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. , Bull , R. J. , Davis , W. P. , Katz , S. , Roberts , M. H. Jr. and Jacobs , V. A. Vol. 5 , 355 – 364 . Chelsea, MI : Lewis .
   Google Scholar
• Tennant , R. W. , Margolin , B. H. , Shelby , M. D. , Zeiger , E. , Haseman , J. K. , Spalding , J. , Caspary , W. , Resnick , M. , Stasiewicz , S. , Anderson , B. and Minor , R. 1987 . Prediction of chemical carcinogenicity in rodents from in vitro genetic toxicity assays . Science , 236 : 933 – 941 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas , E. L. , Jefferson , M. M. , Bennett , J. J. and Learn , D. B. 1987 . Mutagenic activity of chloramines . Mutat. Res , 188 : 35 – 43 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toth , G. P. , Long , R. E. , Mills , T. S. and Smith , M. K. 1990 . Effects of chlorine dioxide on the developing rat brain . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 31 : 29 – 44 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . 1989 . Disinfection by-products in united states drinking waters: Volume 1—Report , EPA 570/9–90/010a, NTIS #PB90–240078, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Washington, DC : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency .
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. National primary drinking water regulations; Disinfectants and disinfection by-products notice of data availability; Proposed rule 40 CFR parts 141 and 142. Fed. Reg. 63(61):15674–15692 http://www.epa.gov/EPA-WATER/1998/March/Day-31/w8215.htm
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1999. Chloroform mode of action analysis. 1999 [cited January 3, 2002] http://www.epa.gov/sab/chloro00.htm
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2001a. Controlling disinfection by-products and microbial contaminants in drinking water. EPA/600/R-01/110, Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/600r01110/600r01110.pdf
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2001b. Integrated Risk Information System Assessment for Chloroform http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/index.cfm (Accessed: 4 September 8 ).
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2002. The occurrence of disinfection by-products (DBPs) of health concern in drinking water: Results of a nationwide occurrence study. EPA/600/R-02/068. Athens, GA: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory http://www.epa.gov/athens/publications/reports/EPA_600_R02_068.pdf
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . 2003 . Health risks to fetuses, infants, and children: Proposed stage 2 disinfectant/disinfection byproducts: A review. EPA/822/R-03/010. Washington, DC , U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water .
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2005. Guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment. EPA/630/P-03/001F. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Assessment Forum http://www.epa.gov/ncea/iris/cancer032505-final.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Vartianen , T. , Liimatainen , A. , Kauranen , P. and Hiisvirta , L. 1988 . Relations between drinking water mutagenicity and water quality parameters . Chemosphere , 17 : 189 – 202 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Gunten , U. 2003 . Ozonation of drinking water: Part II. Disinfection and by-product formation in presence of bromide, iodide, or chlorine . Water Res , 37 : 1469 – 1487 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waller , K. , Swan , S. H. , DeLorenze , G. and Hopkins , B. 1998 . Trihalomethanes in drinking water and spontaneous abortion . Epidemiology , 9 : 134 – 140 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watt , B. E. , Malcolm , R. L. , Hayes , M. H. B. , Clark , N. W. E. and Chipman , J. K. 1996 . Chemistry and potential mutagenicity of humic substances in waters from different watersheds in Britain and Ireland . Water Res , 30 : 1502 – 1516 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberg , H. S. , Delcomyn , C. A. and Unanam , V. 2003 . Bromate in chlorinated drinking water. Occurrence and Implication for future regulation . Environ. Sci. Technol , 37 : 3104 – 3110 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woo , Y. T. , Lai , D. , McLain , J. L. , Manibusan , M. K. and Dellarco , V. 2002 . Use of mechanism-based structure-activity relationships analysis in carcinogenic potential ranking for drinking water disinfection by-products . Environ. Health Perspect , 110 ( suppl 1 ) : 75 – 87 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolff , J. 1998 . Perchlorate and the thyroid gland . Pharmacol. Rev , 50 : 89 – 105 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright , J. M. , Schwartz , J. , Vartianinen , T. , Mäki-Paakkanen , J. , Altshul , L. , Harrington , J. J. and Dockery , D. W. 2002 . 3-Chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-2(5H)-furanone (MX) and mutagenic activity in Massachusetts drinking water . Environ. Health Perspect , 110 : 157 – 164 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright , J. M. , Schwartz , J. and Dockery , D. W. 2004 . The effect of disinfection by-products and mutagenic activity on birth weight and gestational duration . Environ. Health Perspect , 112 : 920 – 925 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamazaki , H. , Oda , Y. , Funae , Y. , Imaoka , S. , Inui , Y. , Guengerich , F. P. and Shimada , T. 1992 . Participation of rat liver cytochrome P450 2E1 in the activation of N-nitrosodimethylamine and N-nitrosodiethylamine to products genotoxic in an acetyltransferase-overexpressing Salmonella typhimurium strain (NM2009) . Carcinogenesis , 13 : 1789 – 1994 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang , X. , Echigo , S. , Minear , R. A. and Plewa , M. J. 2000 . “ Characterization and comparison of disinfection by-products of four major disinfectants ” . In Natural organic matter and disinfection by-products: Characterization and control in drinking water , ACS Symposium Series No. 761 Edited by: Barrett , S. , Krasner , S. W. and Amy , G. 299 – 314 . Washington, DC : American Chemical Society .
   Google Scholar
• Zhuo , C. , Chengyong , Y. , Junhe , L. , Huixian , Z. and Jingi , Z. 2001 . Factors in the formation of disinfection by-products MX, DCA, and TCA by chlorination of fulvic acid from lake sediments . Chemosphere , 45 : 379 – 385 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zierler , S. , Feingold , L. , Danley , R. A. and Craun , G. 1988 . Bladder cancer in Massachusetts related to chlorinated and chloraminated drinking water: A case-control study . Arch. Environ Health , 43 : 195 – 200 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar