References
- Berg, O. H., R. N. Henriksen, and S. K. Steinsvåg. 1995. The effect of a benzalkonium chloride-containing nasal spray on human respiratory mucosa in vitro as a function of concentration and time of action. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 76 (4):245–49. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.16000773.1995.tb00137.x.
- Berg, O. H., K. Lie, and S. K. Steinsvåg. 1994. The effect of decongestive nosedrops on human respiratory mucosa in vitro. Laryngoscope 104:1153–118.
- Biomonitoring California. 2020. Potential designated chemicals: Quaternary ammonium compounds. Materials for March 4, 2020 meeting of the Scientific Guidance Panel for Biomonitoring California, Accessed 8 January 2022. https://biomonitoring.ca.gov/downloads/potential-designated-chemicals-quaternary-ammonium-compounds .
- Boobis, A. R., J. E. Doe, B. Heinrich-Hirsch, M. E. Meek, S. Munn, M. Ruchirawat, J. Schlatter, J. Seed, and C. Vickers. 2008. IPCS framework for analyzing the relevance of a noncancer mode of action for humans. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 38 (2):87– 96. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/10408440701749421.
- Bragadin, M., and P. Dell’Antone. 1996. Mitochondrial bioenergetics as affected by cationic detergents. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 30 (2):280–84. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00215809.
- Bureš, F. 2019. Quaternary ammonium compounds: Simple in structure, complex in application. Top Curr Chem (Cham) 377 (3):14. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s41061-019-0239-2.
- Cho, J. H., Y. S. Kwun, H. S. Jang, J. M. Kang, Y. S. Won, and H. R. Yoon. 2000. Long-term use of preservatives on rat nasal respiratory mucosa: Effects of benzalkonium chloride and potassium sorbate. Laryngoscope 110 (2):312–17. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/00005537-200002010-00025.
- Choi, H. Y., Y. H. Lee, C. H. Lim, Y. S. Kim, I. S. Lee, J. M. Jo, H. Y. Lee, H. G. Cha, H. J. Woo, and D. S. Seo. 2020. Assessment of respiratory and systemic toxicity of Benzalkonium chloride following a 14-day inhalation study in rats. Part Fibre Toxicol 17 (1):5. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s12989-020-0339-8.
- Choi, S. M., T. H. Roh, D. S. Lim, S. Kacew, H. S. Kim, and B. M. Lee. 2018. Risk assessment of benzalkonium chloride in cosmetic products. J Toxicol Environ Health B 21 (1):8–23. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/10937404.2017.1408552.
- Clausen, P. A., T. A. Mørck, A. C. Ø. Jensen, T. W. Schou, V. Kofoed-Sørensen, I. K. Koponen, M. Frederiksen, A. Detmer, M. Fink, A. W. Nørgaard, et al. 2020. Biocidal spray product exposure: Measured gas, particle, and surface concentrations compared with spray model simulations. J Occup Environ Hyg 17 (1):15–29. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/15459624.2019.1689247.
- Cox, G. E., and D. Bailey. 1975. 90-Day feeding study in dogs with a quaternary ammonium sanitizer BARDAC-22. Food and Drug Research Laboratories, Inc., Waverly, NY, USA. ( unpublished). MRID No. 40262901.
- Cüreoğlu, S., M. Akkuş, U. Osma, M. Yaldiz, F. Oktay, B. Can, C. Güven, M. Tekin, and F. Meriç. 2002. The effect of benzalkonium chloride on rabbit nasal mucosa in vivo: an electron microscopy study. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 259 (7):362–64. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-002-0458-x.
- Datta, S., G. He, A. Tomilov, S. Sahdeo, M. S. Denison, and G. Cortopassi. 2017. In vitro evaluation of mitochondrial function and estrogen signaling in cell lines exposed to the antiseptic cetylpyridinium chloride. Environ. Health Perspect. 125 (8):087015. doi:https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1404.
- DeLeo, P. C., C. Huynh, M. Pattanayek, K. C. Schmid, and N. Pechacek. 2020. Assessment of ecological hazards and environmental fate of disinfectant quaternary ammonium compounds. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 206:111116. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111116.
- ECETOC. 2003. Derivation of assessment factors for human health risk assessment. Technical Report No. 86, -0773-6347-86. Brussels, Belgium.
- ECETOC. 2010. Guidance on assessment factors to derive a DNEL Technical Report No. 110. Brussels, Belgium.
- ECHA. 2015a. Assessment report alkyl (C12-16) dimethylbenzyl ammonium chloride product-type 8. Wood Preservative Accessed 8 May 2021. https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/b9030b10-c8af-211b-456a-4f4b11d509b7 .
- ECHA. 2015b. Assessment report didecyldimethylammonium chloride product-type 8 (wood preservative), Accessed 8 May 2021. http://dissemination.echa.europa.eu/Biocides/ActiveSubstances/0067-08/0067-08_Assessment_Report.pdf .
- ECHA. 2020. Biocidal products committee (BPC). Opinion on the application for approval of the active substance: Alkyl (C12-16) dimethylbenzyl ammonium chloride product type:3. ECHA/BPC/267/2020’, Accessed 18 January 2022.https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/ea459fdd-abcd-3e16-115d-28082f99a968
- ECHA. 2021. Registration dossier: Quaternary ammonium compounds, benzyl C12-C16 (even numbered)-alkyldimethyl chlorides Accessed 18 August 2021. https://echa.europa.eu/registration-dossier/-/registered-dossier/13152/7/1 .
- Eguchi, Y., S. Shimizu, and Y. Tsujimoto. 1997. Intracellular ATP levels determine cell death fate by apoptosis or necrosis. Cancer Res. 57 (10):1835–40.
- EPA. 2014. Guidance for applying quantitative data to develop data-derived extrapolation factors for interspecies and intraspecies extrapolation. EPA/100/R-14/002F, Accessed 8 August 2021. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-01/documents/ddef-final.pdf .
- EPA. 2017a. Alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (ADBAC) final work plan. registration review: initial docket case number 0350. EPA-HQ-OPP-2015-0737, Accessed 20 March 2021. https://www.regulations.gov/document/EPA-HQ-OPP-2015-0737-0004 .
- EPA. 2017b. Didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (DDAC) final work plan. Registration review: Initial docket case number 3003. EPA-HQ-OPP-2015-0740, Accessed 20 March 2021. https://www.regulations.gov/document/EPA-HQ-OPP-2015-0740-0004 .
- EPA. 2017c. Memorandum. Sulfuric acid – Reevaluation of the Point of Departure (POD) and Uncertainty Factors used for inhalation risk assessment. EPA-HQ-OPP-2008-0766-0028, Accessed 14 February 2022. https://www.regulations.gov/document/EPA-HQ-OPP-2008-0766-0028 .
- EPA. 2017d. Mineral acids proposed interim registration review decision. Case Number 4064: EPA-HQ-OPP-2008-0766.
- EPA. 2021. Chlorothalonil: Revised human health draft risk assessment for registration review. EPA-HQ-OPP-20110840-0080, Accessed 14 February 2022. https://www.regulations.gov/document/EPA-HQ-OPP-2011-0840-0080 .
- Gilbert, P., and L. E. Moore. 2005. Cationic antiseptics: Diversity of action under a common epithet. J. Appl. Microbiol. 99 (4):703–15. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02664.x.
- Gill, M. W., J. S. Chun, and C. L. Wagner. 1991. Chronic dietary toxicity/oncogenicity study with didecyldimethylammonium chloride in rats. Union Carbide, Bushy Run Research Center, Export, PA, USA. Report No. 53-566 (unpublished). MRID No. 41965101.
- Gill, M. W., S. J. Hermansky, and C. L. Wagner. 1991. Chronic dietary oncogenicity study with didecyldimethylammonium chloride in mice. Union Carbide, Bushy Run Research Center, Export, PA, USA. Report No. 53-528 ( unpublished). MRID No. 41802301.
- Goldenthal, E. 1994. Evaluation of ADBAC in a one-year chronic dietary toxicity study in dogs. International Research and Development Corporation, Mattawan, MI, USA. Report No. 638-004 (unpublished). MRID No. 43221101.
- Graf, P., J. Enerdal, and H. Hallén. 1999. Ten days’ use of oxymetazoline nasal spray with or without benzalkonium chloride in patients with vasomotor rhinitis. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 125 (10):1128–32. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/archotol.125.10.1128.
- Hagi-Pavli, E., D. M. Williams, J. L. Rowland, M. Thornhill, and A. T. Cruchley. 2014. Characterizing the immunological effects of oral healthcare ingredients using an in vitro reconstructed human epithelial model. Food Chem. Toxicol. 74:139–48. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2014.09.007.
- Herron, J. M., K. M. Hines, H. Tomita, R. P. Seguin, J. Y. Cui, and L. Xu. 2019. Multi-omics investigation reveals benzalkonium chloride disinfectants alter sterol and lipid homeostasis in the mouse neonatal brain Toxicol Sci. 171:32–45.
- Herron, J., R. C. Reese, K. A. Tallman, R. Narayanaswamy, N. A. Porter, and L. Xu. 2016. Identification of environmental quaternary ammonium compounds as direct inhibitors of cholesterol biosynthesis. Toxicol. Sci. 151 (2):261–70. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfw041.
- Hrubec, T. C., R. P. Seguin, L. Xu, G. A. Cortopassi, S. Datta, A. L. Hanlon, A. J. Lozano, V. A. McDonald, C. A. Healy, T. C. Anderson, et al. 2021. Altered toxicological endpoints in humans from common quaternary ammonium compound disinfectant exposure. Toxicol Rep 8:646–56. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2021.03.006.
- Inácio, Â. S., G. N. Costa, N. S. Domingues, M. S. Santos, A. J. M. Moreno, W. L. C. Vaz, and O. V. Vieira. 2013. Mitochondrial dysfunction is the focus of quaternary ammonium surfactant toxicity to mammalian epithelial cells. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 57 (6):2631–39. doi:https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.02437-12.
- Inácio, Â. S., K. A. Mesquita, M. Baptista, J. Ramalho-Santos, W. L. Vaz, and O. V. Vieira. 2011. In vitro surfactant structure-toxicity relationships: Implications for surfactant use in sexually transmitted infection prophylaxis and contraception. PLoS One 6:e19850. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0019850.
- Johnson, N. F. 2017. Pulmonary toxicity of benzalkonium chloride. J Aerosol Med Pulm Drug Deliv 31 (1):1–17. doi:https://doi.org/10.1089/jamp.2017.1390.
- Kim, Y. S., S. B. Lee, and C. H. Lim. 2017. Effects of didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC) on Sprague-Dawley rats after 13 weeks of inhalation exposure. Toxicol Res 33 (1):7–14. doi:https://doi.org/10.5487/TR.2017.33.1.007.
- Kuboyama, Y., K. Suzuki, and T. Hara. 1997. Nasal lesions induced by intranasal administration of benzaikonium chloride in rats. J Toxicol Sci 22 (2):153–60. doi:https://doi.org/10.2131/jts.22.2_153.
- Kwon, J. T., H. M. Kim, P. Kim, and K. Choi. 2014. Didecyldimethylammonium chloride induces oxidative stress and inhibits cell growth in lung epithelial cells. Mol Cell Toxicol 10 (1):41–45. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s13273-014-0005-z.
- Kwon, D., J. T. Kwon, Y. M. Lim, I. Shim, E. Kim, D. H. Lee, B. I. Yoon, P. Kim, and H. M. Kim. 2019. Inhalation toxicity of benzalkonium chloride and triethylene glycol mixture in rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 378:114609. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2019.114609.
- Larsen, S. T., H. Verder, and G. D. Nielsen. 2012. Airway effects of inhaled quaternary ammonium compounds in mice. Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 110 (6):537–43. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-7843.2011.00851.x.
- Lebe, E., M. Baka, A. Yavaşoğlu, H. Aktuğ, U. Ateş, and Y. Uyanikgil. 2004. Effects of preservatives in nasal formulations on the mucosal integrity: An electron microscopic study. Pharmacology 72 (2):113–20. doi:https://doi.org/10.1159/000080183.
- Liberman, E. A., V. P. Topaly, L. M. Tsofina, A. A. Jasaitis, and V. P. Skulachev. 1969. Mechanism of coupling of oxidative phosphorylation and the membrane potential of mitochondria. Nature 222 (5198):1076–80. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/2221076a0.
- Lim, C. H., and Y. H. Chung. 2014. Effects of didecyldimethylammonium chloride on Sprague-Dawley rats after two weeks of inhalation exposure. Toxicol Res 30 (3):205–10. doi:https://doi.org/10.5487/TR.2014.30.3.205.
- Luz, A., P. DeLeo, N. Pechacek, and M. Freemantle. 2020. Human health hazard assessment of quaternary ammonium compounds: didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride and alkyl (C12-C16) dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 116:104717. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2020.104717.
- The Medical Biochemistry Page. 2021. Cholesterol: Synthesis, metabolism, and regulation, Accessed 7 October 2021.https://themedicalbiochemistrypage.org/cholesterol-synthesis-metabolism-and-regulation/
- Meek, M. E., A. Boobis, I. Cote, V. Dellarco, G. Fotakis, S. Munn, J. Seed, and C. Vickers. 2014. New developments in the evolution and application of the WHO/IPCS framework on mode of action/species concordance analysis. J. Appl. Toxicol. 34 (1):1–18. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/jat.2949.
- Melin, V. E., H. Potineni, P. Hunt, J. Griswold, B. Siems, S. R. Werre, and T. C. Hrubec. 2014. Exposure to common quaternary ammonium disinfectants decreases fertility in mice. Reprod. Toxicol. 50:163–70.
- Miszkiel, K. A., R. Beasley, and S. T. Holgate. 1988. The influence of ipratropium bromide and sodium cromoglycate on benzalkonium chloride-induced bronchoconstriction in asthma. Br J Clin Pharmacol 26 (3):295–301. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2125.1988.tb05280.x.
- Miszkiel, K. A., R. Beasley, P. Rafferty, and S. T. Holgate. 1988. The contribution of histamine release to bronchoconstriction provoked by inhaled benzalkonium chloride in asthma. Br J Clin Pharmacol 25 (2):157–63. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2125.1988.tb03286.x.
- Murphy, M. P., and R. A. Smith. 2007. Targeting antioxidants to mitochondria by conjugation to lipophilic cations. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 47 (1):629–56. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105110.
- NRC. 2001. Standing operating procedures for developing acute exposure guideline levels for hazardous chemicals ’, The National Academies Press, Accessed 8 August 2021. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.17226/10122 .
- NRC. 2010a. Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals: Volume 8, The National Academies Press, Accessed 8 August 2021. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.17226/12770 .
- NRC. 2010b. Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals. Volume 9, The National Academies Press, Accessed 8 August 2021. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.17226/12978 .
- NRC. 2016. Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals: Volume 20, The National Academies Press, Accessed 8 August 2021. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.17226/23634 .
- OECD. 2017. OECD environment, health and safety publications. Series on testing and assessment. Draft revision of guidance document on developing and assessing adverse outcome pathways, Accessed 18 March 2021. http://www.oecd.org/env/ehs/testing/latestdocuments/Draft%20revised%20AOP%20Guidance%20Document_January%202017.pdf .
- OECD. 2018. Users’ handbook supplement to the guidance document for developing and assessing adverse outcome pathways. OECD Series on Adverse Outcome Pathways No. 1, OECD Puiblishing. Accessed 18 September 2021. https://doi.org/10.1787/5jlv1m9d1g32-en.
- Ogilvie, B. H., A. Solis-Leal, J. B. Lopez, B. D. Poole, R. A. Robison, and B. K. Berges. 2021. Alcohol-free hand sanitizer and other quaternary ammonium disinfectants quickly and effectively inactivate SARS-CoV-2. J. Hosp. Infect. 108:142–45. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2020.11.023.
- Ohnuma-Koyama, A., T. Yoshida, H. Tajima-Horiuchi, N. Takahashi, S. Yamaguchi, R. Ohtsuka, Y. Takeuchi-Kashimoto, M. Kuwahara, M. Takeda, N. Nakashima, et al. 2013. Didecyldimethylammonium chloride induces pulmonary fibrosis in association with TGF-β signaling in mice. Exp. Toxicol. Pathol. 65 (7–8):1003–09. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etp.2013.02.003.
- Ohnuma, A., T. Yoshida, H. Horiuchi, J. Fukumori, M. Tomita, S. Kojima, N. Takahashi, T. Fukuyama, K. Hayashi, S. Yamaguchi, et al. 2011. Altered pulmonary defense system in lung injury induced by didecyldimethylammonium chloride in mice. Inhal Toxicol 23 (8):476–85. doi:https://doi.org/10.3109/08958378.2011.584080.
- Ohnuma, A., T. Yoshida, H. Tajima, T. Fukuyama, K. Hayashi, S. Yamaguchi, R. Ohtsuka, J. Sasaki, J. Fukumori, M. Tomita, et al. 2010. Didecyldimethylammonium chloride induces pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis in mice. Exp. Toxicol. Pathol. 62 (6):643–51. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etp.2009.08.007.
- Osheroff, M. R. 1990. Subchronic oral toxicity study of didecyldimethylammonium chloride in dogs. Hazleton Washington Laboratories America, Inc., Vienna, VA, USA. Study No. 2545-100 (unpublished).
- Osimitz, T. G., and W. Droege. 2021. Quaternary ammonium compounds: Perspectives on benefits, hazards, and risk. Toxicol Res Appl 5. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/23978473211049085.
- Piola, R., and C. Grandison. 2017. Assessments of quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC) for in-water treatment of mussel fouling in vessel internals and sea chests using an experimental seawater pipework system. Biofouling 33 (1):59–74. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/08927014.2016.1261287.
- Riechelmann, H., T. Deutschle, A. Stuhlmiller, S. Gronau, and H. Bürner. 2004. Nasal toxicity of benzalkonium chloride. Am J Rhinol 18 (5):291–99. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/194589240401800506.
- Rock, K. L., and H. Kono. 2008. The inflammatory response to cell death. Annu Rev Pathol 3 (1):99–126. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pathmechdis.3.121806.151456 .
- Rogers, D. F. 2007. Physiology of airway mucus secretion and pathophysiology of hypersecretion. Resp Care 52:1134–49.
- Ross, M. F., G. F. Kelso, F. H. Blaikie, A. M. James, H. M. Cochemé, A. Filipovska, T. Da Ros, T. R. Hurd, R. A. Smith, and M. P. Murphy. 2005. Lipophilic triphenylphosphonium cations as tools in mitochondrial bioenergetics and free radical biology. Biochemistry (Moscow) 70 (2):222–30. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10541-005-0104-5.
- Scallan, J., V. H. Huxley, and R. J. Korthuis. 2010. Integrated systems physiology: from molecule to function to disease. in, Capillary fluid exchange: regulation, functions, and pathology. San Rafael (CA)): Morgan & Claypool Life Sciences.
- Schulze, G. E. 1991. Chronic oral toxicity study of didecyldimethylammonium chloride in dogs. Hazleton Washington, Inc., Study No. 2545-102 (unpublished). MRID 41970401.
- Seed, J., E. W. Carney, R. A. Corley, K. M. Crofton, J. M. DeSesso, P. M. D. Foster, R. Kavlock, G. Kimmel, J. Klaunig, M. E. Meek, et al. 2005. Overview: Using mode of action and life stage information to evaluate the human relevance of animal toxicity data. Crit Rev Toxicol 35 (8–9):663–72. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/10408440591007133.
- Seguin, R. P., J. M. Herron, V. A. Lopez, J. L. Dempsey, and L. Xu. 2019. Metabolism of benzalkonium chlorides by human hepatic cytochromes P450. Chem Res Toxicol 32 (12):2466–78. doi:https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrestox.9b00293.
- Shusterman, D., E. Matovinovic, and A. Salmon. 2006. Does Haber’s law apply to human sensory irritation? Inhal Toxicol 18 (7):457–71. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/08958370600602322.
- Singal, M. (2010). Nanoparticle induced inflammatory signaling in the lung: Mechanism of Aerosil200 particulate induced inflammatory gene expression in alveolar epithelial cells. VDM, Germany: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller GmbH & Co. KG, Saarbrücken.
- Sonich-Mullin, C., R. Fielder, J. Wiltse, K. Baetcke, J. Dempsey, P. Fenner-Crisp, D. Grant, M. Hartley, A. Knaap, D. Kroese, et al. 2001. IPCS conceptual framework for evaluating a mode of action for chemical carcinogenesis. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 34 (2):146–52. doi:https://doi.org/10.1006/rtph.2001.1493.
- Stanley, P. J., W. M. Griffin, R. Wilson, M. A. Greenstone, I. S. Mackay, and P. J. Cole. 1985. Effect of betamethasone and betamethasone with neomycin nasal drops on human nasal mucociliary clearance and ciliary beat frequency. Thorax 40 (8):607–12. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.40.8.607.
- Storaas, T., M. Andersson, C. G. Persson, S. K. K. Steinsv??g, G. Marko-Varga, and L. Greiff. 2000. Effects of benzalkonium chloride on innate immunity physiology of the human nasal mucosa in vivo. The Laryngoscope 110 (9):1543–47. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/00005537-200009000-00025.
- Swiercz, R., T. Hałatek, J. Stetkiewicz, W. Wąsowicz, B. Kur, Z. Grzelińska, and W. Majcherek. 2013. Toxic effect in the lungs of rats after inhalation exposure to benzalkonium chloride. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 26 (4):647–56. doi:https://doi.org/10.2478/s13382-013-0137-8.
- Swiercz, R., T. Hałatek, W. Wasowicz, B. Kur, Z. Grzelińska, and W. Majcherek. 2008. Pulmonary irritation after inhalation exposure to benzalkonium chloride in rats. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 21 (2):157–63. doi:https://doi.org/10.2478/v10001-008-0020-1.
- Van Miller, J. P. 1988a. Ninety-day dietary subchronic oral toxicity study with didecyldimethylammonium chloride in rats. Union Carbide, Bushy Run Research Center, Export, PA, USA. Report No. 51-506 (unpublished). MRID No. 40966302.
- Van Miller, J. P. 1988b. Subchronic dietary dose range finding study with didecyldimethylammonium chloride in mice. Union Carbide, Bushy Run Research Center, Export, PA, USA. Report No. 51-507 (unpublished). MRID No. 40966301.
- Walters, R. M., G. Mao, E. T. Gunn, and S. Hornby. 2012. Cleansing formulations that respect skin barrier integrity. Dermatol Res Pract 2012:495917. doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/495917.
- Weinberg, J. T. 2011. Maquat 4450-E: A 4-week aerosol inhalation toxicity study with a 2-week recovery period in sprague-dawley rats. WIL-782002, MRID No. 4866790. Laboratories, LLC. Ashland, OH, USA: WIL Research.
- Wessels, S., and H. Ingmer. 2013. Modes of action of three disinfectant active substances: A review. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 67 (3):456–67. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2013.09.006.
- WHO. 2005. Chemical-specific adjustment factors for interspecies differences and human variability: Guidance document for use of data in dose/concentration-response assessment. International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), Harmonization Project Document No 2. Geneva: CH.
- Wilson, M. S., and T. A. Wynn. 2009. Pulmonary fibrosis: Pathogenesis, etiology and regulation. Mucosal Immunol 2 (2):103–21. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/mi.2008.85.
- Yang, J. S., S. Y. Park, S.-B. Lee, J.-H. Han, M.-G. Kang, and S.-B. Choi. 2012. Research report disinfectant microparticle aerosol development and inhalation toxicity studies. Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute, Korea Occupational Safety and Health Agency (translated from Korean to English).
- Yoshimatsu, T., and K. Hiyama. 2007. Mechanism of the action of didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC) against Escherichia coli and morphological changes of the cells. Biocontrol Science 12 (3):93–99. doi:https://doi.org/10.4265/bio.12.93.
- Zubris, D. L., K. P. Minbiole, and W. M. Wuest. 2017. Polymeric quaternary ammonium compounds: Versatile antimicrobial materials. Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry 17 (3):305–18. doi:https://doi.org/10.2174/1568026616666160829155805.