References
- Amakura, Y., T. Tsutsumi, M. Yoshimura, M. Nakamura, H. Handa, R. Matsuda, R. Teshima, and T. Watanabe. 2016. Detection of aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation by some chemicals in food using a reporter gene assay. Foods 5 (1):15. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/foods5010015.
- Amon, F., M. McNamee, and P. Blomqvist. 2014. Fire effluent contaminants, predictive models, and gap analysis. Technical Report · January 2014. Brandforsk project 700-121.
- ASTM International. 2020. ASTM E800-20. Standard guide for measurement of gases present or generated during fires, Accessed May 20 2022. https://www.astm.org/e0800-20.html.
- Austin, C. C., D. Wang, D. J. Ecobichon, and G. Dussault. 2001. Characterization of volatile organic compounds in smoke at municipal structural fires. J Toxicol Environ Health Part A 63 (6):437–58. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/152873901300343470.
- Behnisch, P. A., K. Hosoe, and S. Sakai. 2003. Brominated dioxin-like compounds: In vitro assessment in comparison to classical dioxin-like compounds and other polyaromatic compounds. Environ Int 29 (6):861–77. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-4120(03)00105-3.
- Birnbaum, L. S. 1994. The mechanism of dioxin toxicity: Relationship to risk assessment. Environ Health Perspect 102 (9):157–67. doi:https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.94102s9157.
- Blais, M., and K. Carpenter. 2015. Flexible polyurethane foams: A comparative measurement of toxic vapors and other toxic emissions in controlled combustion environments of foams with and without fire retardants. Fire Technol 51 (1):3–18. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-013-0354-5.
- Blais, M. S. 2019. Letter to the editor for Chemosphere reference: Flame-retardants in UK furniture increase smoke toxicity more than they reduce fire growth rate. McKenna et al., 2017. Chemosphere 232:506–08.
- Blais, M. S., K. Carpenter, and K. Fernandez. 2020. ‘Comparative room burn study of furnished rooms from the United Kingdom, France and the United States. Fire Technol 56 (2):489–514. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-019-00888-8.
- Blomqvist, P., M. S. McNamee, P. Andersson, and A. Lönnermark. 2012. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) quantified in large-scale fire experiments. Fire Technol 48 (2):513–28. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-011-0242-9.
- Bolstad-Johnson, D. M., J. L. Burgess, C. D. Crutchfield, S. Storment, R. Gerkin, and J. R. Wilson. 2000. Characterization of firefighter exposures during fire overhaul. AIHAJ 61 (5):636–41. doi:https://doi.org/10.1202/0002-8894(2000)061<0636:COFEDF>2.0.CO;2.
- Brandt-Rauf, P. W., L. F. Fallon Jr., T. Tarantini, C. Idema, and L. Andrews. 1988. Health hazards of fire fighters: Exposure assessment. Br J Ind Med 45 (9):606–12. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.45.9.606.
- Daniels, R. D., T. L. Kubale, J. H. Yiin, M. M. Dahm, T. R. Hales, D. Baris, S. H. Zahm, J. J. Beaumont, K. M. Waters, and L. E. Pinkerton. 2014. Mortality and cancer incidence in a pooled cohort of us firefighters from San Francisco, Chicago and Philadelphia (1950-2009). Occup Environ Med 71 (6):388–97. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2013-101662.
- Daniels, R. D., S. Bertke, M. M. Dahm, J. H. Yiin, T. L. Kubale, T. R. Hales, D. Baris, S. H. Zahm, J. J. Beaumont, K. M. Waters, et al. 2015. Exposure-response relationships for select cancer and non-cancer health outcomes in a cohort of U.S. firefighters from. Occup Environ Med 72:699–706.
- de Boer, J., and H. M. Stapleton. 2019. Toward fire safety without chemical risk. Science 364 (6437):231–32. doi:https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aax2054.
- Döring, M., L. Greiner, and D. Goedderz. 2021. Flame retardants. In Plastics Flammability Handbook (fourth edition) (Hanser), ed. J. Troitzsch and E. Antonatus, 53–128. Munich, Germany: Hanser Publications.
- EPA. 1999. Compendium of methods for the determination of toxic organic compounds in ambient air. Second edition. Compendium method TO-15 determination of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in air collected in specially-prepared canisters and analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS),’ Accessed April 23 2021. https://www.epa.gov/amtic/compendium-methods-determination-toxic-organic-compounds-ambient-air.
- EPA. 2007. ‘SW-846 test method 8290A: Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) by high-resolution gas chromatography/high resolution mass spectrometry (HRGC/HRMS),’ Accessed April 27 2021. https://www.epa.gov/hw-sw846/sw-846-test-method-8290a-polychlorinated-dibenzodioxins-pcdds-and-polychlorinated.
- EPA. 2017. ‘Method 23 determination of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans from stationary sources,’ Accessed April 26 2021. https://www.epa.gov/emc/method-23-dioxins-and-furans.
- EPA. 2021. ‘Vocabulary catalog. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) glossary,’ Accessed May 11 2022. https://sor.epa.gov/sor_internet/registry/termreg/searchandretrieve/glossariesandkeywordlists/search.do;jsessionid=nGEozfxIDFvnAeMpt1zv_Kcvr2EDICm7L3ZBcf9KQDZxN-WY7xwD!-441202046?details=&vocabName=IRIS%20Glossary.
- Evans, D. E., and K. W. Fent. 2015. Ultrafine and respirable particle exposure during vehicle fire suppression. Environ Sci Process Impacts 17 (10):1749–59. doi:https://doi.org/10.1039/C5EM00233H.
- Fabian, T. Z., J. L. Borgerson, P. D. Gandhi, C. S. Baxter, C. S. Ross, J. E. Lockey, and J. M. Dalton. 2014. Characterization of firefighter smoke exposure. Fire Technol 50 (4):993–1019. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-011-0212-2.
- Fent, K. W., and D. E. Evans. 2011. Assessing the risk to firefighters from chemical vapors and gases during vehicle fire suppression. J Environ Monit Assess 13 (3):536–43. doi:https://doi.org/10.1039/c0em00591f.
- Fent, K. W., J. Eisenberg, J. Snawder, D. Sammons, J. D. Pleil, M. A. Stiegel, C. Mueller, G. P. Horn, and J. Dalton. 2014. Systemic exposure to PAHs and benzene in firefighters suppressing controlled structure fires. Ann Occup Hyg 58 (7):830–45. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/annhyg/meu036.
- Fent, K. W., D. E. Evans, K. Babik, C. Striley, S. Bertke, S. Kerber, D. Smith, and G. P. Horn. 2018. Airborne contaminants during controlled residential fires. J Occup Environ Hyg 15 (5):399–412. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/15459624.2018.1445260.
- Flatley, C. 2005. Flashover and Backdraft: A Primer, Accessed April 23 2021. https://www.fireengineering.com/firefighting/flashover-and-backdraft-a-primer/#gref.
- Guillaume, E., F. Didieux, A. Thiry, and A. Bellivier. 2014. Real-scale fire tests of one bedroom apartments with regard to tenability assessment. Fire Safety Journal 70:81–97. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2014.08.014.
- Guillaume, E. 2021. Smoke and toxicity from fire effluents. In Plastics Flammability Handbook (fourth edition), ed. J. Troitzsch and E. Antonatus, 185–218. Munich, Germany: Hanser Publications.
- Harris, M. W., J. A. Moore, J. G. Vos, and B. N. Gupta. 1973. General biological effects of TCDD in laboratory animals. Environ Health Perspect 5:101–09. doi:https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.7305101.
- Hendriks, G., R. S. Derr, B. Misovic, B. Morolli, F. M. Calléja, and H. Vrieling. 2016. The extended ToxTracker assay discriminates between induction of DNA damage, oxidative stress, and protein misfolding. Toxicol Sci 150 (1):190–203. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfv323.
- Hirschler, M. M. 2019. Rebuttal to” Flame retardants in UK furniture increase smoke toxicity more than they reduce fire growth rate” by S. McKenna, R. Birtles, K. Dickens, R. Walker, M. Spearpoint, A. Stec and R. Hull (2018 Apr; 196: 429-439). Chemosphere 232:509–511. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.12.017.
- IARC. 2010. Painting, firefighting, and shiftwork. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinogen Risks Human 98: 9–764.
- IARC. 2022. ‘IARC monographs on the identification of carcinogenic hazards to humans. List of classifications. Agents Classified by the IARC Monographs, Volumes 1131,’ Accessed May 23 2021. https://monographs.iarc.who.int/list-of-classifications/.
- ISO. 2012. ‘ISO 13571:2012. Life-threatening components of fire — Guidelines for the estimation of time to compromised tenability in fires’, Accessed May 11 2022. https://www.iso.org/standard/56172.html.
- ISO. 2015a. ‘ISO 5660-1:2015. Reaction-to-fire tests — Heat release, smoke production and mass loss rate — Part 1: Heat release rate (cone calorimeter method) and smoke production rate (dynamic measurement),’ Accessed May 10 2022. https://www.iso.org/standard/57957.html.
- ISO. 2015b. ‘ISO 13344:2015. Estimation of the lethal toxic potency of fire effluents,’ Accessed May 11 2022. https://www.iso.org/standard/68029.html#:~:text=ISO%2013344%3A2015%20provides%20a,of%20a%20physical%20fire%20model.
- ISO. 2016a. ‘ISO 9705-1:2016. Reaction to fire tests — Room corner test for wall and ceiling lining products — Part 1: Test method for a small room configuration,’ Accessed November 26 2021. https://www.iso.org/standard/59895.html.
- ISO. 2016b. ‘ISO/TS 19700:2016. Controlled equivalence ratio method for the determination of hazardous components of fire effluents - Steady-state tube furnace,’ Accessed May 10 2022. https://www.iso.org/standard/70630.html.
- ISO. 2017. ‘ISO 5659-2:2017. Plastics — Smoke generation — Part 2: Determination of optical density by a single-chamber test’, Accessed May 10 2022. https://www.iso.org/standard/65243.html.
- Keir, J. L. A., U. S. Akhtar, D. M. J. Matschke, P. A. White, T. L. Kirkham, H. M. Chan, and J. M. Blais. 2020. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) and metal contamination of air and surfaces exposed to combustion emissions during emergency fire suppression: Implications for firefighters’ exposures. Sci Total Environ 698:134211. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134211.
- Kirk, K. M., and M. B. Logan. 2015. Firefighting instructors’ exposures to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during live fire training scenarios. J Occup Environ Hyg 12 (4):227–34. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/15459624.2014.955184.
- Larsson, M., D. Fraccalvieri, C. D. Andersson, L. Bonati, A. Linusson, and P. L. Andersson. 2018. Identification of potential aryl hydrocarbon receptor ligands by virtual screening of industrial chemicals. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25 (3):2436–49. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0437-9.
- McKenna, S. T., R. Birtles, K. Dickens, R. G. Walker, M. J. Spearpoint, A. A. Stec, and T. R. Hull. 2018. Flame retardants in UK furniture increase smoke toxicity more than they reduce fire growth rate. Chemosphere 196:429–39. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.12.017.
- McNamee, M., B. Truchot, G. Marlair, and B. J. Meacham. 2020. Research roadmap: Environmental impact of fires in the built environment. Final Report, Accessed May 13 2021. https://www.nfpa.org/-/media/Files/News-and-Research/Fire-statistics-and-reports/US-Fire-Problem/RFRoadmapEnvironmentalImpactFires.pdf.
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 2019. Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH) values, Accessed April 26 2021. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/default.html.
- Nebert, D. W., and T. P. Dalton. 2006. The role of cytochrome P450 enzymes in endogenous signalling pathways and environmental carcinogenesis. Nat Rev Cancer 6 (12):947–60. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc2015.
- NFPA. 2003. Fire protection handbook. 19th. vol. II, In: National Fire Protection Association, Inc, 8–24.
- NTP. 2021. ‘Report on carcinogens, fifteenth edition’, Accessed April 23 2021. https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/go/roc15.
- Peeters, K., M. Ursič, Č. Tavzes, and F. Knez. 2021. Review: The use of bench-scale tests to determine toxic organic compounds in fire effluents and to subsequently estimate their impact on the environment. Fire Technol 57 (2):625–56. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-020-01065-y.
- Petkov, P. I., J. C. Rowlands, R. Budinsky, B. Zhao, M. S. Denison, and O. Mekenyan. 2010. Mechanism-based common reactivity pattern (COREPA) modelling of aryl hydrocarbon receptor binding affinity. SAR QSAR Environ Res 21 (1–2):187–214. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/10629360903570933.
- Purser, D., and J. L. McAllister. 2016. Assessment of hazards to occupants from smoke, toxic gases, and heat in. In SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 2308–428. 5th ed. New York: Springer.
- Purser, D. 2016. Combustion toxicity in. In SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 2207–307, 5th ed. New York: Springer.
- Ravey, M., I. Keidar, E. D. Weil, and M. P. Eli. 1998a. Flexible polyurethane foam. II. Fire retardation by tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate. Part A. Examination of the vapor phase (the flame). J Appl Polym Sci 68 (2):217–29. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(19980411)68:2<217::AID-APP5>3.0.CO;2-T.
- Ravey, M., D. W. Edward, I. Keidar, and M. P. Eli. 1998b. Flexible polyurethane foam. II. Fire retardation by tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate. Part b. Examination of the condensed phase (the pyrolysis zone). J Appl Polym Sci 68 (2):231–54. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(19980411)68:2<231::AID-APP6>3.0.CO;2-R.
- Safe, S. H. 1986. Comparative toxicology and mechanism of action of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 26 (1):371–99. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pa.26.040186.002103.
- Safe, S. 1990. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and related compounds: Environmental and mechanistic considerations which support the development of toxic equivalency factors (TEFs). Crit Rev Toxicol 21 (1):51–88. doi:https://doi.org/10.3109/10408449009089873.
- Stec, A. A., and T. R. Hull. 2011. Assessment of the fire toxicity of building insulation materials. Energy Build 43 (2–3):498–506. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.10.015.
- Wakefield, J. C. 2010. A toxicological review of the products of combustion. Health Protection Agency Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Chemical Hazards and Poisons Division, Chilton, Didcot, Oxfordshire, UK, Accessed April 25 2021. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/458052/HPA-CHaPD-004_for_website.pdf.
- Zhao, B., D. E. Degroot, A. Hayashi, G. He, and M. S. Denison. 2010. CH223191 is a ligand-selective antagonist of the Ah (Dioxin) receptor. Toxicol Sci 117 (2):393–403. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfq217.
- Zhao, H., L. Chen, T. Yang, N. D. V. Ya-Long Feng, B. Liu, Q. Liu, Y. Zhao, Y. Zhao, and -Y.-Y. Zhao. 2019. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation mediates kidney disease and renal cell carcinoma. J Transl Med 17 (1):302. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-019-2054-5.