Spiritual Well-Being, Dissociation, and Alexithymia: Examining Direct and Moderating Effects

REFERENCES

• Andrews , P. and Meyer , R. G. 2003 . Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale and Short Form C: Forensic norms . Journal of Clinical Psychology , 59 ( 4 ) : 483 – 492 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagby , R. M. , Parker , J. D. A. and Taylor , G. J. 1994 . The 20-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale: I. Item selection and cross-validation of the factor structure . Journal of Psychosomatic Research , 38 ( 1 ) : 23 – 32 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagby , R. M. , Taylor , G. J. and Parker , J. D. A. 1994 . The 20-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale: II. Convergent, discriminant, and concurrent validity . Journal of Psychosomatic Research , 38 ( 1 ) : 33 – 40 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bankier , B. , Aigner , M. and Bach , M. 2001 . Comparative evaluation of somatoform disorder, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and depression . Psychosomatics , 42 ( 3 ) : 235 – 240 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Banyard , V. L. , Williams , L. M. and Siegel , J. A. 2001 . Understanding links among childhood trauma, dissociation, and women's mental health . American Journal of Orthopsychiatry , 71 ( 3 ) : 311 – 320 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron , R. M. and Kenny , D. A. 1986 . The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 51 ( 6 ) : 1173 – 1182 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belavich , T. G. and Pargament , K. I. 2002 . The role of attachment in predicting spiritual coping with a loved one in surgery . Journal of Adult Development , 9 ( 1 ) : 13 – 29 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernstein , E. M. and Putnam , F. W. 1986 . Development, reliability, and validity of a dissociation scale . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 174 ( 12 ) : 727 – 735 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boor , M. 1982 . Childhood experiences of a client with multiple personality . Psychological Reports , 51 ( 1 ) : 317 – 318 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bowman , E. S. 1989 . Understanding and responding to religious material in the therapy of multiple personality disorder . Dissociation , 2 ( 4 ) : 231 – 238 .
   Google Scholar
• Bowman , E. S. 2000 . The assets and liabilities of conservative religious faith for persons with severe dissociative disorders . Journal of Psychology and Christianity , 19 ( 2 ) : 122 – 138 .
   Google Scholar
• Bowman , E. S. 2006 . Why conversion seizures should be classified as a dissociative disorder . Psychiatric Clinics of North America , 29 ( 1 ) : 185 – 212 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bowman , E. S. , Coons , P. M. , Jones , R. S. and Oldstrom , M. 1987 . Religious psychodynamics in multiple personalities: Suggestions for treatment . American Journal of Psychotherapy , 41 ( 4 ) : 542 – 554 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Braun , B. G. 1988 . The BASK model of dissociation . Dissociation , 1 ( 1 ) : 4 – 23 .
   Google Scholar
• Bray , P. 2010 . A broader framework for exploring spiritual experience in the wake of stressful life events: Examining connections between posttraumatic growth and psycho-spiritual transformation . Mental Health, Religion, & Culture , 13 ( 3 ) : 293 – 308 .
   Google Scholar
• Brown , R. J. , Cardena , E. , Nijenhuis , E. , Sar , V. and van der Hart , O. 2007 . Should conversion disorder be reclassified as a dissociative disorder in DSM–V? . Psychosomatics: Journal of Consultation and Liaison Psychiatry , 48 ( 5 ) : 369 – 378 .
   Google Scholar
• Bufford , R. K. , Paloutzian , R. F. and Ellison , C. W. 1991 . Norms for the spiritual well-being scale . Journal of Psychology and Theology , 19 ( 1 ) : 56 – 70 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlson , E. B. and Putnam , F. W. 1993 . An update on the Dissociative Experiences Scale . Dissociation , 6 ( 1 ) : 16 – 27 .
   Google Scholar
• Cecero , J. J. , Bedrosian , D. R. , Fuentes , A. and Bornstein , R. F. 2006 . Religiosity and healthy dependency as predictors of spiritual well-being . International Journal for the Psychology of Religion , 16 ( 3 ) : 225 – 238 .
   Google Scholar
• Chen , Y. Y. and Koenig , H. G. 2006 . Traumatic stress and religion: Is there a relationship? A review of empirical findings . Journal of Religion and Health , 45 : 371 – 381 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Consedine , N. S. , Magai , C. and Bonanno , G. A. 2002 . Moderators of the emotion inhibition-health relationship: A review and research agenda . Review of General Psychology , 6 ( 2 ) : 204 – 228 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coons , P. M. 1980 . Multiple personality: Diagnostic considerations . Journal of Clinical Psychiatry , 41 ( 10 ) : 330 – 336 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coons , P. M. 1994 . Confirmation of childhood abuse in child and adolescent cases of multiple personality disorder and dissociative disorder not otherwise specified . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 182 ( 8 ) : 461 – 464 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowne , D. P. and Marlowe , D. 1960 . A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology . Journal of Consulting Psychology , 24 ( 4 ) : 349 – 354 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De Berardis , D. , D'Albenzio , A. , Gambi , A. , Sepede , G. , Valchera , A. , Conti , C. M. … and Ferro , F. M. 2009 . Alexithymia and its relationships with dissociative experiences and Internet addiction in a nonclinical sample . Cyberpsychology & Behavior , 12 ( 1 ) : 67 – 69 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dorahy , M. J. and Lewis , C. A. 2001 . The relationship between dissociation and religiosity: An empirical evaluation of Schumaker's theory . Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion , 40 ( 2 ) : 315 – 322 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellason , J. W. , Ross , C. A. and Day , H. D. 2003 . Spirituality and ego strength in dissociative identity disorder . American Journal of Pastoral Counseling , 6 : 43 – 49 .
   Google Scholar
• Ellison , C. W. 1983 . Spiritual well-being: Conceptualization and measurement . Journal of Psychology and Theology , 11 ( 4 ) : 330 – 340 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellison , C. W. and Smith , J. 1991 . Toward an integrative measure of health and well-being . Journal of Psychology and Theology , 19 ( 1 ) : 35 – 48 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elzinga , B. M. , Bermond , B. and van Dyck , R. 2002 . The relationship between dissociation proneness and alexithymia . Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics , 71 ( 2 ) : 104 – 111 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Falsetti , S. A. , Resick , P. A. and Davis , J. L. 2003 . Changes in religious beliefs following trauma . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 16 ( 4 ) : 391 – 398 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frazier , P. A. , Tix , A. P. and Barron , K. E. 2004 . Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research . Journal of Counseling Psychology , 51 ( 1 ) : 115 – 134 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frewen , P. A. , Dozois , D. J. A. , Neufeld , R. W. J. and Lanius , R. A. 2008 . Meta-analysis of alexithymia in posttraumatic stress disorder . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 21 ( 2 ) : 243 – 246 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frewen , P. A. and Lanius , R. A. 2006 . Neurobiology of dissociation: Unity and disunity in mind–body–brain . Psychiatric Clinics of North America , 29 ( 1 ) : 113 – 128 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frischholz , E. J. , Braun , B. G. , Sachs , G. R. , Hopkins , L. , Shaeffer , D. M. , Lewis , J. … and Schwartz , D. R. 1990 . The Dissociative Experiences Scale: Further replication and validation . Dissociation , 3 ( 3 ) : 151 – 153 .
   Google Scholar
• Genia , V. 1996 . I, E, Quest, and fundamentalism as predictors of psychological and spiritual well-being . Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion , 35 ( 1 ) : 56 – 64 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grabe , H. J. , Rainermann , S. , Spitzer , S. , Gansicke , M. and Freyberger , H. J. 2000 . The relationship between dimensions of alexithymia and dissociation . Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics , 69 ( 1 ) : 128 – 131 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grabe , H. J. , Spitzer , C. and Freyberger , H. J. 2004 . Alexithymia and personality in relation to dimensions of psychopathology . American Journal of Psychiatry , 161 ( 7 ) : 1299 – 1301 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunzelmann , T. , Kupfer , J. and Brahler , E. 2002 . Alexithymia in the elderly general population . Comprehensive Psychiatry , 43 ( 1 ) : 74 – 80 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hair , J. F. , Anderson , R. E. , Tatham , R. L. and Black , W. C. 1998 . Multivariate data analysis , 5th , Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Harris , J. I. , Erbes , C. R. , Engdahl , B. E. , Olson , R. H. A. , Winskowski , A. M. and McMahill , J. 2008 . Christian religious functioning and trauma outcomes . Journal of Clinical Psychology , 64 ( 1 ) : 17 – 29 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helmes , E. , McNeill , P. D. , Holden , R. R. and Jackson , C. 2008 . The construct of alexithymia: Associations with defense mechanisms . Journal of Clinical Psychology , 64 ( 3 ) : 318 – 331 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill , P. C. and Pargament , K. I. 2008 . Advances in the conceptualization and measurement of religion and spirituality: Implications for physical and mental health research . Psychology of Religion and Spirituality , S ( 1 ) : 3 – 17 .
   Google Scholar
• Hill , P. C. , Pargament , K. I. , Hood , R. W. Jr. , McCulough , M. E. , Swyers , J. P. , Larson , D. B. and Zinnbauer , B. J. 2000 . Conceptualizing religion and spirituality: Points of commonality, points of departure . Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour , 30 : 51 – 77 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Irwin , H. J. and Melbin-Helberg , E. B. 1997 . Alexithymia and dissociative tendencies . Journal of Clinical Psychology , 53 ( 2 ) : 159 – 166 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kluft , R. 1984 . Treatment results in multiple personality: An analysis of 33 cases . Psychiatric Clinics of North America , 7 : 9 – 29 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaMothe , R. 2002 . Where are you?” Defensive dissociation and fragments of annihilated faith . Pastoral Psychology , 50 ( 3 ) : 173 – 189 .
   Google Scholar
• Larson , D. B. and Larson , S. S. 2003 . Spirituality's potential relevance to physical and emotional health: A brief review of quantitative research . Journal of Psychology and Theology , 31 ( 1 ) : 37 – 51 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipsanen , T. , Saarijarvi , S. and Lauerma , H. 2003 . The Finnish version of the Dissociative Experiences Scale-II (DES-II) and psychiatric distress . Nordic Journal of Psychiatry , 57 ( 1 ) : 17 – 22 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipsanen , T. , Saarijarvi , S. and Lauerma , H. 2004 . Exploring the relations between depression, somatization, dissociation and alexithymia—Overlapping or independent constructs? . Psychopathology , 37 ( 4 ) : 200 – 206 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lyons-Ruth , K. , Dutra , L. , Schuder , M. and Bianchi , I. 2006 . From infant attachment disorganization to adult dissociation: Relational adaptations or traumatic experiences? . Psychiatric Clinics of North America , 29 ( 1 ) : 63 – 86 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattila , A. K. , Poutanen , O. , Koivisto , A. , Salokangas , R. K. R. and Joukamaa , M. 2007 . Alexithymia and life satisfaction in primary healthcare patients . Psychosomatics , 48 ( 6 ) : 523 – 529 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattila , A. K. , Salminen , J. K. , Nummi , T. and Joukamaa , M. 2006 . Age is strongly associated with alexithymia in the general population . Journal of Psychosomatic Research , 61 ( 5 ) : 629 – 635 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McConnell , K. M. , Pargament , K. I. , Ellison , G. G. and Flannelly , K. J. 2006 . Examining the links between spiritual struggles and symptoms of psychopathology in a national sample . Journal of Clinical Psychology , 62 ( 12 ) : 1469 – 1484 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merckelbach , H. and Jelicic , M. 2004 . Dissociative symptoms are related to endorsement of vague trauma items . Comprehensive Psychiatry , 45 ( 1 ) : 70 – 75 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Modestin , J. , Lotscher , K. and Erni , T. 2002 . Dissociative experiences and their correlates in young non-patients . Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice , 75 ( 1 ) : 58 – 64 .
   Google Scholar
• Paloutzian , R. F. and Ellison , C. W. 1982 . “ Loneliness, spiritual well-being and the quality of life ” . In Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy , Edited by: Peplau , L. A. and Perlman , D. 224 – 236 . New York, NY : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Parker , J. D. A. , Taylor , G. J. and Bagby , R. M. 2003 . The 20-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale: III. Reliability and factorial validity in a community population . Journal of Psychosomatic Research , 55 ( 3 ) : 269 – 275 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peres , J. F. P. , Moreira-Almeida , A. , Nasello , A. G. and Koenig , H. G. 2007 . Spirituality and resilience in trauma victims . Journal of Religion and Health , 46 : 343 – 350 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richards , D. G. 1990 . Dissociation and transformation . Journal of Humanistic Psychology , 30 ( 3 ) : 54 – 83 .
   Google Scholar
• Rosik , C. H. 2000 . Utilizing religious resources in the treatment of dissociative trauma symptoms: Rationale, current status, and future directions . Journal of Trauma & Dissociation , 19 ( 1 ) : 69 – 89 .
   Google Scholar
• Ross , C. A. , Norton , G. R. and Anderson , G. 1988 . The Dissociative Experiences Scale: A replication study . Dissociation , 1 ( 3 ) : 21 – 22 .
   Google Scholar
• Sayar , K. , Kose , S. , Grabe , H. H. and Topbas , M. 2005 . Alexithymia and dissociative tendencies in an adolescent sample from eastern Turkey . Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences , 59 ( 2 ) : 127 – 124 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schultz , J. M. , Tallman , B. A. and Altmaier , E. M. 2010 . Pathways to posttraumatic growth: The contributions of forgiveness and importance of religion and spirituality . Psychology of Religion and Spirituality , 2 ( 2 ) : 104 – 114 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw , A. , Joseph , S. and Linley , P. A. 2005 . Religion, spirituality, and posttraumatic growth: A systematic review . Mental Health, Religion, & Culture , 8 ( 1 ) : 1 – 11 .
   Google Scholar
• Sifneos , P. E. 1973 . The prevalence of alexithymic characteristics in psychosomatic patients . Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics , 22 : 255 – 262 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simeon , D. , Giesbrecht , T. , Knutelska , M. , Smith , R. J. and Smith , L. M. 2009 . Alexithymia, absorption, and cognitive failures in depersonalization disorder: A comparison to posttraumatic stress disorder and healthy volunteers . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 197 ( 7 ) : 492 – 498 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Taylor , G. J. , Bagby , R. M. and Luminet , O. 2000 . “ Assessment of alexithymia: Self-report and observer-rated scales ” . In The handbook of emotional intelligence , Edited by: Bar-On , R. and Parker , J. D. A. 301 – 319 . San Francisco, CA : Jossey-Bass .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , G. J. , Bagby , R. M. and Parker , J. D. A. 1997 . Disorders of affect regulation: Alexithymia in medical and psychiatric illness , Cambridge, , England : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Tsuang , M. T. , Simpson , J. C. , Koenen , K. C. , Kremen , W. S. and Lyons , M. J. 2007 . Spiritual well-being and health . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 195 ( 8 ) : 673 – 680 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van der Kolk , B. A. , van der Hart , O. and Marmar , C. R. 1996 . “ Dissociation and information processing in posttraumatic stress disorder ” . In Traumatic stress: The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society , Edited by: van der Kolk , B. A. , McFarlane , A. C. and Weisaeth , L. 303 – 327 . New York, NY : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Waller , E. and Scheidt , C. E. 2006 . Somatoform disorders as disorders of affect regulation: A developmental perspective . International Review of Psychiatry , 18 ( 1 ) : 13 – 24 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waller , N. G. and Ross , C. A. 1997 . The prevalence and biometric structure of pathological dissociation in the general population: Taxometric and behavior genetic findings . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 106 ( 4 ) : 499 – 510 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson , P. J. , Ghorbani , N. , Davison , H. K. , Bing , M. N. , Hood , R. W. and Ghramaleki , A. F. 2002 . Negatively reinforcing personal extrinsic motivations: Religious orientation, inner awareness, and mental health in Iran and the United States . International Journal for the Psychology of Religion , 12 ( 4 ) : 255 – 276 .
   Google Scholar
• Wise , T. N. , Mann , L. S. and Sheridan , M. J. 2000 . Relationship between alexithymia, dissociation and personality in psychiatric outpatients . Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics , 69 ( 3 ) : 123 – 127 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar