Gold nanoparticles as radiosensitizer for radiotherapy and diagnosis of COVID-19: A review

References

• World Health Organization, Cancer, 2020 (2018).
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization, Estimated number of new cases from 2020 to 2040, (2021).
   Google Scholar
• D. P. Nussbaum, et al., “blazer 3rd, preoperative or postoperative radiotherapy versus surgery alone for retroperitoneal sarcoma: a case-control, propensity score-matched analysis of a nationwide clinical oncology database,” Lancet Oncol, vol. 17, no. 7, pp.966–975, 2016. DOI: 10.1016/S1470-2045(16)30050-X.
   Google Scholar
• B. Glimelius, “On a prolonged interval between rectal cancer (chemo) radiotherapy and surgery,” Ups J Med Sci, vol. 122, no. 1, pp.1–10, 2017. DOI: 10.1080/03009734.2016.1274806.
   Google Scholar
• H. S. Wasan, et al., “First-line selective internal radiotherapy plus chemotherapy versus chemotherapy alone in patients with liver metastases from colorectal cancer (FOXFIRE, SIRFLOX, and FOXFIRE-Global): a combined analysis of three multicentre, randomised, phase 3 trials,” Lancet Oncol, vol. 18, no. 9, pp.1159–1171, 2017. DOI: 10.1016/S1470-2045(17)30457-6.
   Google Scholar
• M. H. Yashavarddhan, S. K. Shukla, A. K. Sharma, and M. Suar, “Suar, response of normal cells following multiple radiation exposure under radiotherapy setting,” Def Life Sci J, vol. 2, no. 3, pp.335–342, 2017. DOI: 10.14429/dlsj.2.11667.
   Google Scholar
• W. C. Roentgen, “On a new kind of rays,” Nature, vol. 53, pp. 274–276, 1896. DOI:10.1038/053274b0.
   Google Scholar
• P. P. Dendy and B. Heaton. Physics for Diagnostic Radiology. Boca Raton: CRC press, 2011.
   Google Scholar
• K. Haume, et al., “Gold nanoparticles for cancer radiotherapy: a review,” Cancer Nanotechnol, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 8, 2016. DOI: 10.1186/s12645-016-0021-x.
   Google Scholar
• R. Baskar, J. Dai, N. Wenlong, R. Yeo, and K. W. Yeoh, “Biological response of cancer cells to radiation treatment,” Front Mol Biosci, vol. 1, pp. 24, 2014. DOI:10.3389/fmolb.2014.00024.
   Google Scholar
• W. F. Morgan, “Non-targeted and delayed effects of exposure to ionizing radiation: i. radiation-induced genomic instability and bystander effects in vitro,” radiation Research, vol. 159, no. 5, pp.567–580, 2003. DOI: 10.1667/0033-7587(2003)159[0567:NADEOE]2.0.CO;2.
   Google Scholar
• S. Wolff, “The adaptive response in radiobiology: evolving insights and implications,” Environ Health Perspect, vol. 106, pp. 277–283, 1998. DOI: 10.1289/ehp.98106s1277.
   Google Scholar
• J. F. Ward, “The radiation-induced lesions which trigger the bystander effect,” Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis, vol. 499, no. 2, pp.151–154, 2002. DOI: 10.1016/S0027-5107(01)00286-X.
   Google Scholar
• M. C. Joiner, B. Marples, P. Lambin, S. C. Short, and I. Turesson, “Low-dose hypersensitivity: current status and possible mechanisms,” Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys, vol. 49, no. 2, pp.379–389, 2001. DOI: 10.1016/S0360-3016(00)01471-1.
   Google Scholar
• R. C. Miller, et al., “The inverse dose-rate effect for oncogenic transformation by charged particles is dependent on linear energy transfer,” Radiat Res, vol. 133, no. 3, pp.360–364, 1993. DOI: 10.2307/3578222.
   Google Scholar
• E. Porcel, et al., “Gadolinium-based nanoparticles to improve the hadrontherapy performances,” Nanomedicine, vol. 10, no. 8, pp.1601–1608, 2014. DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2014.05.005.
   Google Scholar
• D. Kwatra, A. Venugopal, and S. Anant, “Nanoparticles in radiation therapy: a summary of various approaches to enhance radiosensitization in cancer,” Transl Cancer Res, vol. 2, pp. 330–342, 2013. doi:10.3978/j.issn.2218-676X.2013.08.06.
   Google Scholar
• E. M. Zeman, “Biologic Basis of Radiation Oncology,“ in Clinical Radiation Oncology, Vol 3rd ed.L. L., Gunderson, J. E., Tepper, Eds. Philadelphia: Elsevier, 2012, pp. 3–42. DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-4377-1637-5.00001-8.
   Google Scholar
• C. J. Koch, M. B. Parliament, M. Brown, and R. C. Urtasun, Chemical Modifiers of Radiation Response”, in Leibel and Phillips Textbook of Radiation Oncology, Vol. 3rd ed. R. T. Hoppe, T. L. Phillips, and M. Roach, Eds. Philadelphia: Elsevier, 2010, pp. 55–68. DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-4160-5897-7.00004-4.
   Google Scholar
• J. F. Hainfeld, F. A. Dilmanian, D. N. Slatkin, and H. M. Smilowitz, “Radiotherapy enhancement with gold nanoparticles,” J Pharm Pharmacol, vol. 60, no. 8, pp. 977–985, 2008. DOI: 10.1211/jpp.60.8.0005.
   Google Scholar
• Z. Huaizhi and N. Yuantao, “China’s ancient gold drugs,” Gold Bull, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 24–29, 2001. DOI: 10.1007/BF03214805.
   Google Scholar
• DrugBank, Sodium aurothiomalate, (2020).
   Google Scholar
• M. Falahati, et al., “Gold nanomaterials as key suppliers in biological and chemical sensing, catalysis, and medicine,“ Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-General Subjects, vol. 1864, no. 1, pp. 129435, 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2019.129435.
   Google Scholar
• J. Zhao, M. Zhou, and C. Li, “Synthetic nanoparticles for delivery of radioisotopes and radiosensitizers in cancer therapy,” Cancer Nanotechnol, vol. 7, no. 1, pp.1–23, 2016. DOI: 10.1186/s12645-016-0022-9.
   Google Scholar
• C. Kim, et al., “Molecular photoacoustic tomography of melanomas targeted by bioconjugated gold nanocages,” ACS Nano, vol. 4, no. 8, pp.4559–4564, 2010. DOI: 10.1021/nn100736c.
   Google Scholar
• P. Huang, et al., “Folic acid-conjugated silica-modified gold nanorods for X-ray/CT imaging-guided dual-mode radiation and photo-thermal therapy,” Biomaterials, vol. 32, no. 36, pp.9796–9809, 2011. DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.08.086.
   Google Scholar
• J. F. Hainfeld, et al., “Gold nanoparticles enhance the radiation therapy of a murine squamous cell carcinoma,” Phys Med Biol, vol. 55, no. 11, pp.3045, 2010. DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/55/11/004.
   Google Scholar
• V. D. Badwaik, et al., ”Single-step biofriendly synthesis of surface modifiable, near-spherical gold nanoparticles for applications in biological detection and catalysis,” Langmuir, vol. 27, no. 9, pp.5549–5554, May 2011. DOI: 10.1021/la105041d.
   Google Scholar
• X. Xie, J. Liao, X. Shao, Q. Li, and Y. Lin, “The effect of shape on cellular uptake of gold nanoparticles in the forms of stars, rods, and triangles,” Sci Rep, vol. 7, no. 1, pp.1–9, 2017. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-016-0028-x.
   Google Scholar
• S. A. Rodriguez-Montelongo, et al., “Synthesis, characterization, and toxicity of hollow gold nanoshells,” Journal of Nanoparticle Research, vol. 20, no. 11, pp.311, 2018. DOI: 10.1007/s11051-018-4420-2.
   Google Scholar
• K. Magyari, et al., “Insights into the effect of gold nanospheres, nanotriangles and spherical nanocages on the structural, morphological and biological properties of bioactive glasses,” J Non Cryst Solids, vol. 522, pp. 119552, 2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2019.119552.
   Google Scholar
• N. Ma, et al., “Shape-dependent radiosensitization effect of gold nanostructures in cancer radiotherapy: comparison of gold nanoparticles,” Nanospikes, and Nanorods, ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 13037–13048, 2017. DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b01112.
   Google Scholar
• S. Bhattacharyya, R. A. Kudgus, R. Bhattacharya, and P. Mukherjee, “Inorganic nanoparticles in cancer therapy,” Pharm Res, vol. 28, no. 2, pp.237–259, 2011. DOI: 10.1007/s11095-010-0318-0.
   Google Scholar
• S. Her, D. A. Jaffray, and C. Allen, “Gold nanoparticles for applications in cancer radiotherapy: mechanisms and recent advancements,” Adv Drug Deliv Rev, vol. 109, pp. 84–101, 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2015.12.012.
   Google Scholar
• M. A. K. Abdelhalim, M. M. Mady, and M. M. Ghannam, “Physical properties of different gold nanoparticles: ultraviolet-visible and fluorescence measurements,” J Nanomed Nanotechol, vol. 3, no. 3, pp.178–194, 2012. DOI: 10.4172/2157-7439.1000133.
   Google Scholar
• J. C. Y. Kah, K. W. Kho, C. G. L. Lee, and C. J. Richard, “Early diagnosis of oral cancer based on the surface plasmon resonance of gold nanoparticles,” Int J Nanomedicine, vol. 2, pp. 785, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• R. S. Riley and E. S. Day, “Gold nanoparticle‐mediated photothermal therapy: applications and opportunities for multimodal cancer treatment,” Wiley Interdiscip Rev Nanomed Nanobiotechnol, vol. 9, no. 4, pp.e1449, 2017. DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1449.
   Google Scholar
• U. Rajchakit and V. Sarojini, “Recent developments in antimicrobial-peptide-conjugated gold nanoparticles,” Bioconjug Chem, vol. 28, no. 11, pp.2673–2686, 2017. DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.7b00368.
   Google Scholar
• E. E. Connor, J. Mwamuka, A. Gole, C. J. Murphy, and M. D. Wyatt, “Gold nanoparticles are taken up by human cells but do not cause acute cytotoxicity,“ Small, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 325–327, 2005. DOI: 10.1002/smll.200400093.
   Google Scholar
• Y. Pan, et al., “Size‐dependent cytotoxicity of gold nanoparticles, Small,” Small (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany), vol. 3, no. 11, pp.1941–1949, 2007. DOI: 10.1002/smll.200700378.
   Google Scholar
• Y.-S. Chen, Y.-C. Hung, I. Liau, and G. S. Huang, “Assessment of the in vivo toxicity of gold nanoparticles,” Nanoscale Res Lett, vol. 4, no. 8, pp.858, 2009. DOI: 10.1007/s11671-009-9334-6.
   Google Scholar
• J. A. Coulter, et al., “Cell type-dependent uptake, localization, and cytotoxicity of 1.9 nm gold nanoparticles,” Int J Nanomedicine, vol. 7, pp. 2673, 2012. DOI: 10.2147/IJN.S31751.
   Google Scholar
• Q. Xia, et al., “Size-and cell type-dependent cellular uptake, cytotoxicity and in vivo distribution of gold nanoparticles,” Int J Nanomedicine, vol. 14, pp. 6957, 2019. DOI: 10.2147/IJN.S214008.
   Google Scholar
• W.-S. Cho, et al., “Size-dependent tissue kinetics of PEG-coated gold nanoparticles,” Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, vol. 245, no. 1, pp.116–123, 2010. DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2010.02.013.
   Google Scholar
• H. J. Johnston, et al., “A review of the in vivo and in vitro toxicity of silver and gold particulates: particle attributes and biological mechanisms responsible for the observed toxicity,” Crit Rev Toxicol, vol. 40, no. 4, pp.328–346, 2010. DOI: 10.3109/10408440903453074.
   Google Scholar
• B. D. Chithrani, A. A. Ghazani, and W. C. W. Chan, “Determining the size and shape dependence of gold nanoparticle uptake into mammalian cells,” Nano Lett, vol. 6, no. 4, pp.662–668, 2006. DOI: 10.1021/nl052396o.
   Google Scholar
• R. Shukla, et al, “Biocompatibility of gold nanoparticles and their endocytotic fate inside the cellular compartment: a microscopic overview,” Langmuir, vol. 21, no. 23, pp.10644–10654, 2005. DOI: 10.1021/la0513712.
   Google Scholar
• T. Kim, C.-H. Lee, S.-W. Joo, and K. Lee, “Kinetics of gold nanoparticle aggregation: experiments and modeling,” J Colloid Interface Sci, vol. 318, no. 2, pp.238–243, 2008. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2007.10.029.
   Google Scholar
• S. K. Balasubramanian, et al., “Characterization, purification, and stability of gold nanoparticles,” Biomaterials, vol. 31, no. 34, pp.9023–9030, 2010. DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.08.012.
   Google Scholar
• N. Oh and J.-H. Park, “Endocytosis and exocytosis of nanoparticles in mammalian cells,” Int J Nanomedicine, vol. 9, pp. 51, 2014. DOI: 10.2147/IJN.S26592.
   Google Scholar
• J. D. Trono, et al., “Size, concentration and incubation time dependence of gold nanoparticle uptake into pancreas cancer cells and its future application to X-ray drug delivery system,” J Radiat Res, vol. 52, no. 1, pp.103–109, 2011. DOI: 10.1269/jrr.10068.
   Google Scholar
• S. Alex and A. Tiwari, “Functionalized gold nanoparticles: synthesis, properties and applications-A review,” J Nanosci Nanotechnol, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 1869–1894, 2015. DOI: 10.1166/jnn.2015.9718.
   Google Scholar
• A. Tiwari, A. Chugh, C. Jin, and J. Narayan, “Role of self-assembled gold nanodots in improving the electrical and optical characteristics of zinc oxide films,” J Nanosci Nanotechnol, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 368–371, 2003. DOI: 10.1166/jnn.2003.217.
   Google Scholar
• X. D. Zhang, et al., “Size-dependent radiosensitization of PEG-coated gold nanoparticles for cancer radiation therapy,” Biomaterials, vol. 33, no. 27, pp. 6408–6419, 2012. DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.05.047.
   Google Scholar
• S. D. Perrault, C. Walkey, T. Jennings, H. C. Fischer, and W. C. W. Chan, “Mediating tumor targeting efficiency of nanoparticles through design,” Nano Lett, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 1909–1915, 2009. DOI: 10.1021/nl900031y.
   Google Scholar
• E. Lechtman, et al., “Implications on clinical scenario of gold nanoparticle radiosensitization in regards to photon energy, nanoparticle size, concentration and location,” Phys Med Biol, vol. 56, no. 15, pp. 4631–4647, 2011. DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/56/15/001.
   Google Scholar
• Y. Chen, J. Yang, S. Fu, and J. Wu, “Gold nanoparticles as radiosensitizers in cancer radiotherapy,” Int J Nanomedicine, vol. 15, pp. 9407–9430, 2020. DOI:10.2147/IJN.S272902.
   Google Scholar
• C. Wong, et al., “Multistage nanoparticle delivery system for deep penetration into tumor tissue,” PNAS, vol. 108, no. 6, pp.2426–2431, 2011. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1018382108.
   Google Scholar
• K. Huang, et al., “Size-dependent localization and penetration of ultrasmall gold nanoparticles in cancer cells, multicellular spheroids, and tumoin vivo,” ACS Nano, vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 4483–4493, 2012. DOI: 10.1021/nn301282m.
   Google Scholar
• M. Daté and M. Haruta, “Moisture effect on CO oxidation over Au/TiO2 catalyst,” J Catal, vol. 201, no. 2, pp. 221–224, 2001. DOI: 10.1006/jcat.2001.3254.
   Google Scholar
• J. Huang, T. Takei, T. Akita, H. Ohashi, and M. Haruta, “Gold clusters supported on alkaline treated TS-1 for highly efficient propene epoxidation with O2 and H2,” Appl Catal B, vol. 95, no. 3–4, pp. 430–438, 2010. DOI: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2010.01.023.
   Google Scholar
• J. Huang, et al., “Propene epoxidation with dioxygen catalyzed by gold clusters,” Angewandte Chemie - International Edition, vol. 48, no. 42, pp. 7862–7866, 2009. DOI: 10.1002/anie.200903011.
   Google Scholar
• Y. Deng, et al., “Multifunctional mesoporous composite microspheres with well-designed nanostructure: a highly integrated catalyst system,” J Am Chem Soc, vol. 132, no. 24, pp. 8466–8473, 2010. DOI: 10.1021/ja1025744.
   Google Scholar
• A. Abad, A. Corma, and H. García, “Supported gold nanoparticles for aerobic, solventless oxidation of allylic alcohols, in,” Pure and Applied Chemistry, vol. 79, no. 11, pp. 1847–1854, 2007. DOI: 10.1351/pac200779111847.
   Google Scholar
• A. Abad, C. Almela, A. Corma, and H. García, “Unique gold chemoselectivity for the aerobic oxidation of allylic alcohols,” Chemical Communications. no. 30, pp. 3178–3180, 2006. DOI:10.1039/b606257a.
   Google Scholar
• H. Tsunoyama, H. Sakurai, Y. Negishi, and T. Tsukuda, “Size-specific catalytic activity of polymer-stabilized gold nanoclusters for aerobic alcohol oxidation in water,” J Am Chem Soc, vol. 127, no. 26, pp. 9374–9375, 2005. DOI: 10.1021/ja052161e.
   Google Scholar
• A. Ueda and M. Haruta, “Nitric oxide reduction with hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons over gold catalysts,” Gold Bulletin, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 3–11, 1999. DOI: 10.1007/BF03214783.
   Google Scholar
• X. Bai, et al., “The basic properties of gold nanoparticles and their applications in tumor diagnosis and treatment,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences, vol. 21, no. 7, pp. 1–17, 2020. DOI: 10.3390/ijms21072480.
   Google Scholar
• A. K. Gupta and M. Gupta, “Synthesis and surface engineering of iron oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications,” Biomaterials, vol. 26, no. 18, pp.3995–4021, 2005. DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2004.10.012.
   Google Scholar
• T. S. Hauck, A. A. Ghazani, and W. C. W. Chan, “Assessing the effect of surface chemistry on gold nanorod uptake, toxicity, and gene expression in mammalian cells,“ Small, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 153–159, 2008. DOI: 10.1002/smll.200700217.
   Google Scholar
• J. Lin, H. Zhang, Z. Chen, and Y. Zheng, “Penetration of lipid membranes by gold nanoparticles: insights into cellular uptake, cytotoxicity, and their relationship,” ACS Nano, vol. 4, no. 9, pp.5421–5429, 2010. DOI: 10.1021/nn1010792.
   Google Scholar
• H. Shmeeda, D. Tzemach, L. Mak, and A. Gabizon, “Her2-targeted pegylated liposomal doxorubicin: retention of target-specific binding and cytotoxicity after in vivo passage,” Journal of Controlled Release, vol. 136, no. 2, pp.155–160, 2009. DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2009.02.002.
   Google Scholar
• G. Zhang, et al., “Influence of anchoring ligands and particle size on the colloidal stability and in vivo biodistribution of polyethylene glycol-coated gold nanoparticles in tumor-xenografted mice,” Biomaterials, vol. 30, no. 10, pp.1928–1936, 2009. DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.12.038.
   Google Scholar
• C. H. J. Choi, C. A. Alabi, P. Webster, and M. E. Davis, “Mechanism of active targeting in solid tumors with transferrin-containing gold nanoparticles,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, United State of America. 107 (2010) 1235–1240. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0914140107.
   Google Scholar
• L. Tamarkin, L. Myer, R. Haynes, and G. Paciotti, “CYT-6091 (AurimuneTM): a colloidal gold-based tumor-targeted nanomedicine,” MRS Online Proceedings Library, San Francisco. 1019 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• M. L. Grieneisen and M. Zhang, “Nanoscience and nanotechnology: evolving definitions and growing footprint on the scientific landscape, Small,” Small (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany), vol. 7, no. 20, pp.2836–2839, 2011. DOI: 10.1002/smll.201100387.
   Google Scholar
• J. M. Stern, et al., “Initial evaluation of the safety of nanoshell-directed photothermal therapy in the treatment of prostate disease,” Int J Toxicol, vol. 35, no. 1, pp.38–46, 2016. DOI: 10.1177/1091581815600170.
   Google Scholar
• A. Rostami and A. Sazgarnia, “Gold nanoparticles as cancer theranostic agents,” Nanomed J, vol. 6, pp. 147–160, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• S. K. Libutti, et al., “Phase I and pharmacokinetic studies of CYT-6091, a novel PEGylated colloidal gold-rhTNF nanomedicine,” Clinical Cancer Research, vol. 16, no. 24, pp.6139–6149, 2010. DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-10-0978.
   Google Scholar
• S. Akhter, M. Z. Ahmad, F. J. Ahmad, G. Storm, and R. J. Kok, “Gold nanoparticles in theranostic oncology: current state-of-the-art,” Expert Opin Drug Deliv, vol. 9, no. 10, pp.1225–1243, 2012. DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2012.716824.
   Google Scholar
• B. Jeremic, A. R. Aguerri, and N. Filipovic, “Radiosensitization by gold nanoparticles,” Clinical and Translational Oncology, vol. 15, no. 8, pp.593–601, 2013. DOI: 10.1007/s12094-013-1003-7.
   Google Scholar
• N. Chattopadhyay, et al., “Molecularly targeted gold nanoparticles enhance the radiation response of breast cancer cells and tumor xenografts to X-radiation,” Breast Cancer Res Treat, vol. 137, no. 1, pp.81–91, 2013. DOI: 10.1007/s10549-012-2338-4.
   Google Scholar
• A. Yoshida, et al., “Gold nanoparticle-incorporated molecularly imprinted microgels as radiation sensitizers in pancreatic cancer,” ACS Appl Bio Mater, vol. 2, no. 3, pp.1177–1183, 2019. DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.8b00766.
   Google Scholar
• D. Luo, et al., “Prostate-specific membrane antigen targeted gold nanoparticles for prostate cancer radiotherapy: does size matter for targeted particles?,” Chem Sci, vol. 10, no. 35, pp.8119–8128, 2019. DOI: 10.1039/C9SC02290B.
   Google Scholar
• X. Cheng, et al., “Light-triggered crosslinking of gold nanoparticles for remarkably improved radiation therapy and computed tomography imaging of tumors,” Nanomedicine, vol. 14, no. 22, pp.2941–2955, 2019. DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2019-0015.
   Google Scholar
• F. Naz, V. Koul, A. Srivastava, Y. K. Gupta, and A. K. Dinda, “Biokinetics of ultrafine gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) relating to redistribution and urinary excretion: a long-term in viv study,” J Drug Target, vol. 24, no. 8, pp.720–729, 2016. DOI: 10.3109/1061186X.2016.1144758.
   Google Scholar
• D. E. Owens III, 2006. “Peppas, opsonization, biodistribution, and pharmacokinetics of polymeric nanoparticles,” Int J Pharm, vol. 307, pp. 93–102. NA. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2005.10.010.
   Google Scholar
• R. Herizchi, E. Abbasi, M. Milani, and A. Akbarzadeh, “Current methods for synthesis of gold nanoparticles,” Artif Cells Nanomed Biotechnol, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 596–602, 2016. DOI: 10.3109/21691401.2014.971807.
   Google Scholar
• G. Frens, “Controlled nucleation for the regulation of the particle size in monodisperse gold suspensions,” Nature Physical Science, vol. 241, no. 105, pp. 20–22, 1973. DOI: 10.1038/physci241020a0.
   Google Scholar
• T. Yonezawa and T. Kunitake, “Practical preparation of anionic mercapto ligand-stabilized gold nanoparticles and their immobilization, colloids surfaces A,” Physicochem. Eng. Aspects, vol. 149, no. 1–3, pp.193–199, 1999. DOI: 10.1016/S0927-7757(98)00309-4.
   Google Scholar
• K. J. Watson, J. Zhu, S. B. T. Nguyen, and C. A. Mirkin, “Hybrid nanoparticles with block copolymer shell structures,” J Am Chem Soc, vol. 121, no. 2, pp. 462–463, 1999. DOI: 10.1021/ja983173l.
   Google Scholar
• S. Yang, Y. Wang, Q. Wang, R. Zhang, and B. Ding, “UV irradiation induced formation of Au nanoparticles at room temperature: the case of pH values,” Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp, vol. 301, no. 1–3, pp. 174–183, 2007. DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2006.12.051.
   Google Scholar
• X. Ji, et al., “Size control of gold nanocrystals in citrate reduction: the third role of citrate,” J Am Chem Soc, vol. 129, no. 45, pp. 13939–13948, 2007. DOI: 10.1021/ja074447k.
   Google Scholar
• S. Kumar, K. S. Gandhi, and R. Kumar, “Modeling of formation of gold nanoparticles by citrate method,” Ind Eng Chem Res, vol. 46, no. 10, pp. 3128–3136, 2007. DOI: 10.1021/ie060672j.
   Google Scholar
• M. K. Chow and C. F. Zukoski, “Gold sol formation mechanisms: role of colloidal stability,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science , vol. 165, no. 1, pp.97–109, 1994. DOI: 10.1006/jcis.1994.1210.
   Google Scholar
• M. Shah, “Gold nanoparticles: various methods of synthesis and antibacterial applications,” Frontiers in Bioscience, vol. 19, no. 8, pp. 1320, 2014. DOI: 10.2741/4284.
   Google Scholar
• M. Brust, M. Walker, D. Bethell, D. J. Schiffrin, and R. Whyman, “Synthesis of thiol-derivatised gold nanoparticles in a two-phase liquid-liquid system,” J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun, vol. 0, no. 7, pp.801–802, 1994. DOI: 10.1039/C39940000801.
   Google Scholar
• A. Gole and C. J. Murphy, “Seed-mediated synthesis of gold nanorods: role of the size and nature of the seed,” Chemistry of Materials, vol. 16, no. 19, pp. 3633–3640, 2004. DOI: 10.1021/cm0492336.
   Google Scholar
• Y. Chen, et al., “Shape controlled growth of gold nanoparticles by a solution synthesis,” Chemical Communications. no. 33, pp. 4181–4183, 2005. DOI:10.1039/b504911c.
   Google Scholar
• C. R. Bridges, P. M. Dicarmine, A. Fokina, D. Huesmann, and D. S. Seferos, “Synthesis of gold nanotubes with variable wall thicknesses,” J Mater Chem A Mater, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 1127–1133, 2013. DOI: 10.1039/c2ta00729k.
   Google Scholar
• N. R. Jana, L. Gearheart, and C. J. Murphy, “Seeding growth for size control of 5-40 nm diameter gold nanoparticles,” Langmuir, vol. 17, no. 22, pp. 6782–6786, 2001. DOI: 10.1021/la0104323.
   Google Scholar
• J. F. Hainfeld, D. N. Slatkin, and H. M. Smilowitz, “The use of gold nanoparticles to enhance radiotherapy in mice,” Phys Med Biol, vol. 49, no. 18, pp.N309, 2004. DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/49/18/N03.
   Google Scholar
• S. Jain, et al., “Cell-specific radiosensitization by gold nanoparticles at megavoltage radiation energies,” Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys, vol. 79, no. 2, pp.531–539, 2011. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrobp.2010.08.044.
   Google Scholar
• L. E. Taggart, S. J. McMahon, F. J. Currell, K. M. Prise, and K. T. Butterworth, “The role of mitochondrial function in gold nanoparticle mediated radiosensitisation,” Cancer Nanotechnol, vol. 5, no. 1, pp.1–12, 2014. DOI: 10.1186/s12645-014-0005-7.
   Google Scholar
• L. Cui, et al., “Hypoxia and cellular localization influence the radiosensitizing effect of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) in breast cancer cells,” Radiat Res, vol. 182, no. 5, pp.475–488, 2014. DOI: 10.1667/RR13642.1.
   Google Scholar
• Y. Liu, et al., “The dependence of radiation enhancement effect on the concentration of gold nanoparticles exposed to low-and high-LET radiations,” Physica Medica, vol. 31, no. 3, pp.210–218, 2015. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmp.2015.01.006.
   Google Scholar
• C. Wang, Y. Jiang, X. Li, and L. Hu, “Thioglucose-bound gold nanoparticles increase the radiosensitivity of a triple-negative breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-231,” Breast Cancer, vol. 22, no. 4, pp.413–420, 2015. DOI: 10.1007/s12282-013-0496-9.
   Google Scholar
• N. Chen, et al., “BSA capped Au nanoparticle as an efficient sensitizer for glioblastoma tumor radiation therapy,” RSC Adv, vol. 5, no. 51, pp.40514–40520, 2015. DOI: 10.1039/C5RA04013B.
   Google Scholar
• T. Wolfe, et al., “Targeted gold nanoparticles enhance sensitization of prostate tumors to megavoltage radiation therapy in vivo,” Nanomedicine, vol. 11, no. 5, pp.1277–1283, 2015. DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2014.12.016.
   Google Scholar
• F. Kazmi, et al., “Megavoltage radiosensitization of gold nanoparticles on a glioblastoma cancer cell line using a clinical platform,” Int J Mol Sci, vol. 21, no. 2, pp.429, 2020. DOI: 10.3390/ijms21020429.
   Google Scholar
• K. Khoshgard, B. Hashemi, A. Arbabi, M. J. Rasaee, and M. Soleimani, “Radiosensitization effect of folate-conjugated gold nanoparticles on HeLa cancer cells under orthovoltage superficial radiotherapy techniques,” Phys Med Biol, vol. 59, no. 9, pp.2249, 2014. DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/59/9/2249.
   Google Scholar
• X. Zhang, et al., “Enhanced tumor accumulation of Sub‐2 nm gold nanoclusters for cancer radiation therapy,” Adv Healthc Mater, vol. 3, no. 1, pp.133–141, 2014. DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201300189.
   Google Scholar
• D. Y. Joh, et al., “Selective targeting of brain tumors with gold nanoparticle-induced radiosensitization,” PLoS One, vol. 8, no. 4, pp.e62425, 2013. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0062425.
   Google Scholar
• A. Kefayat, F. Ghahremani, H. Motaghi, and M. A. Mehrgardi, “Investigation of different targeting decorations effect on the radiosensitizing efficacy of albumin-stabilized gold nanoparticles for breast cancer radiation therapy,” European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, vol. 130, pp. 225–233, 2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2019.01.037.
   Google Scholar
• Y. Dou, et al., “Size-tuning ionization to optimize gold nanoparticles for simultaneous enhanced CT imaging and radiotherapy,” ACS Nano, vol. 10, no. 2, pp.2536–2548, 2016. DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.5b07473.
   Google Scholar
• E. Lechtman and J.-P. Pignol, “Interplay between the gold nanoparticle sub-cellular localization, size, and the photon energy for radiosensitization,” Sci Rep, vol. 7, no. 1, pp.1–6, 2017. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-13736-y.
   Google Scholar
• E. Panzarini, et al., “Intracellular transport of silver and gold nanoparticles and biological responses: an update,” Int J Mol Sci, vol. 19, no. 5, pp.1305, 2018. DOI: 10.3390/ijms19051305.
   Google Scholar
• D. R. Cooper, D. Bekah, and J. L. Nadeau, “Gold nanoparticles and their alternatives for radiation therapy enhancement,” Front Chem, vol. 2, pp. 86, 2014. DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2014.00086.
   Google Scholar
• F. Van den Heuvel, J.-P. Locquet, and S. Nuyts, “Beam energy considerations for gold nano-particle enhanced radiation treatment,” Phys Med Biol, vol. 55, no. 16, pp.4509, 2010. DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/55/16/S06.
   Google Scholar
• A. Jablonski and C. J. Powell, “Information depth and the mean escape depth in Auger electron spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy,” Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films, vol. 21, no. 1, pp.274–283, 2003. DOI: 10.1116/1.1538370.
   Google Scholar
• S. Zhu, Z. Gu, and Y. Zhao, “Harnessing tumor microenvironment for nanoparticle‐mediated radiotherapy,” Adv Ther (Weinh), vol. 1, no. 5, pp.1800050, 2018. DOI: 10.1002/adtp.201800050.
   Google Scholar
• Y. Zheng, D. J. Hunting, P. Ayotte, and L. Sanche, “Radiosensitization of DNA by gold nanoparticles irradiated with high-energy electrons,” Radiat Res, vol. 169, no. 1, pp.19–27, 2008. DOI: 10.1667/RR1080.1.
   Google Scholar
• A. S. Wibowo, et al., Structures of human folate receptors reveal biological trafficking states and diversity in folate and antifolate recognition, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. United State of America. 110 (2013) 15180–15188. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1308827110.
   Google Scholar
• P. Tagde, G. Kulkarni, D. K. Mishra, and P. Kesharwani, “Recent advances in folic acid engineered nanocarriers for treatment of breast cancer,” J Drug Deliv Sci Technol, vol. 56, pp. 101613, 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2020.101613.
   Google Scholar
• G. Toffoli, et al., “Overexpression of folate binding protein in ovarian cancers,” Int J Cancer, vol. 74, no. 2, pp.193–198, 1997. DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19970422)74:2<193::AID-IJC10>3.0.CO;2-F.
   Google Scholar
• D. Mateo, P. Morales, A. Ávalos, and A. I. Haza, “Oxidative stress contributes to gold nanoparticle-induced cytotoxicity in human tumor cells,” Toxicol Mech Methods, vol. 24, no. 3, pp.161–172, 2014. DOI: 10.3109/15376516.2013.869783.
   Google Scholar
• B. Kang, M. A. Mackey, and M. A. El-Sayed, “Nuclear targeting of gold nanoparticles in cancer cells induces DNA damage, causing cytokinesis arrest and apoptosis,” J Am Chem Soc, vol. 132, no. 5, pp.1517–1519, 2010. DOI: 10.1021/ja9102698.
   Google Scholar
• M. Uz, V. Bulmus, and S. Alsoy Altinkaya, “Effect of PEG grafting density and hydrodynamic volume on gold nanoparticle–cell interactions: an investigation on cell cycle, apoptosis, and DNA damage,” Langmuir, vol. 32, no. 23, pp.5997–6009, 2016. DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b01289.
   Google Scholar
• K. T. Butterworth, S. J. McMahon, F. J. Currell, and K. M. Prise, “Physical basis and biological mechanisms of gold nanoparticle radiosensitization,” Nanoscale, vol. 4, no. 16, pp. 4830–4838, 2012. DOI: 10.1039/c2nr31227a.
   Google Scholar
• H. N. McQuaid, et al., “Imaging and radiation effects of gold nanoparticles in tumour cells,” Sci Rep, vol. 6, no. 1, pp.1–10, 2016. DOI: 10.1038/srep19442.
   Google Scholar
• P. Lenard, “Ueber die lichtelektrische Wirkung,” Ann Phys, vol. 313, no. 5, pp.149–198, 1902. DOI: 10.1002/andp.19023130510.
   Google Scholar
• U. S. Food and Drug Administration. Step 3: Clinical Research. https://www.fda.gov/patients/drug-development-process/step-3-clinical-research. Accessed: Jan 1 2022, 2018.
   Google Scholar
• N. Ahmed , “ Effective dose enhancement using gold as a radiation sensitizer: a Monte Carlo study,“ Semantic Scholar, 2011. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Effective-dose-enhancement-using-gold-as-a-a-Monte-Ahmed/7decbcfb924dd76faa032aebff4fc4d45ce645b2
   Google Scholar
• J. F. Hainfeld, D. N. Slatkin, T. M. Focella, and H. M. Smilowitz, “Gold nanoparticles: a new X-ray contrast agent,” Br J Radiol, vol. 79, no. 939, pp.248–253, 2006. DOI: 10.1259/bjr/13169882.
   Google Scholar
• M.J. Gazda and L. R. Coia, “Principles of radiation therapy,” Cancer Network, 2007. https://www.cancernetwork.com/view/principles-radiation-therapy
   Google Scholar
• J. C. L. Chow, M. K. K. Leung, and D. A. Jaffray, “Monte Carlo simulation on a gold nanoparticle irradiated by electron beams,” Phys Med Biol, vol. 57, no. 11, pp.3323, 2012. DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/57/11/3323.
   Google Scholar
• J. H. Rose, et al., “First radiotherapy of human metastatic brain tumors delivered by a computerized tomography scanner (CTRx,” Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys, vol. 45, no. 5, pp.1127–1132, 1999. DOI: 10.1016/S0360-3016(99)00347-8.
   Google Scholar
• M. de Bruin, “Glossary of terms used in nuclear analytical chemistry (Provisional),“ Pure and Applied Chemistry, vol. 54, no. 8, pp. 1533–1554, 1982. DOI: 10.1351/pac198254081533.
   Google Scholar
• F. Boateng and W. Ngwa, “Delivery of nanoparticle-based radiosensitizers for radiotherapy applications,” Int J Mol Sci, vol. 21, no. 1, pp.273, 2020. DOI: 10.3390/ijms21010273.
   Google Scholar
• X. Yao, C. Huang, X. Chen, Y. Zheng, and L. Sanche, “Chemical radiosensitivity of DNA induced by gold nanoparticles,” J Biomed Nanotechnol, vol. 11, no. 3, pp.478–485, 2015. DOI: 10.1166/jbn.2015.1922.
   Google Scholar
• F. Xiao, et al., “On the role of low-energy electrons in the radiosensitization of DNA by gold nanoparticles,” Nanotechnology, vol. 22, no. 46, pp.465101, 2011. DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/22/46/465101.
   Google Scholar
• W. Yan, et al., “Facile and green synthesis of cellulose nanocrystal-supported gold nanoparticles with superior catalytic activity,” Carbohydr Polym, vol. 140, pp. 66–73, 2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.12.049.
   Google Scholar
• N. N. Cheng, et al., “Chemical enhancement by nanomaterials under X-ray irradiation,” journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 134, no. 4, pp.1950–1953, 2012. DOI: 10.1021/ja210239k.
   Google Scholar
• B. Rudek, A. McNamara, H. Byrne, Z. Kuncic, and J. Schuemann, “Physical dose enhancement of gold nanoparticles and their impact on water radiolysis in radiotherapy,” in: APS March Meeting: Boston, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• V. Ramalingam, S. Revathidevi, T. S. Shanmuganayagam, L. Muthulakshmi, and R. Rajaram, “Gold nanoparticle induces mitochondria-mediated apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in nonsmall cell lung cancer cells,” Gold Bull, vol. 50, no. 2, pp.177–189, 2017. DOI: 10.1007/s13404-017-0208-x.
   Google Scholar
• A. B. Bucharskaya, et al., Gold Nanoparticle-Based Technologies in Photothermal/Photodynamic Treatment: The Challenges and Prospects. in: Nanotechnology and Biosensors, Elsevier, 2018, pp. 151–173.
   Google Scholar
• B. Rudek, et al., “Radio-enhancement by gold nanoparticles and their impact on water radiolysis for x-ray, proton and carbon-ion beams,” physics in Medicine & Biology, vol. 64, no. 17, pp. 175005, 2019. DOI: 10.1088/1361-6560/ab314c.
   Google Scholar
• M. Liu, et al., “Gold nanoparticles trigger apoptosis and necrosis in lung cancer cells with low intracellular glutathione,” Journal of Nanoparticle Research, vol. 15, no. 8, pp.1745, 2013. DOI: 10.1007/s11051-013-1745-8.
   Google Scholar
• H. Paquot, et al., “Radiation-induced mitotic catastrophe enhanced by gold nanoparticles: assessment with a specific automated image processing workflow,” Radiat Res, vol. 192, no. 1, pp.13–22, 2019. DOI: 10.1667/RR14962.1.
   Google Scholar
• K. Rieck, et al., “Modulation of gold nanoparticle mediated radiation dose enhancement through synchronization of breast tumor cell population,” Br J Radiol, vol. 92, no. 1100, pp.20190283, 2019. DOI: 10.1259/bjr.20190283.
   Google Scholar
• Q. Li, C. Huang, L. Liu, R. Hu, and J. Qu, “Effect of surface coating of gold nanoparticles on cytotoxicity and cell cycle progression,“ Nanomaterials, vol. 8, no. 12, pp. 1063, 2018 doi:10.3390/nano8121063.
   Google Scholar
• J. Folkman “Angiogenesis,” in Biology of Endothelial Cells, E. A. Jaffe, Ed. New York: Springer, 1984. pp. 412–428.
   Google Scholar
• D. Ribatti and E. Crivellato, “Mast cells, angiogenesis, and tumour growth, biochimica et biophysica Acta (BBA)-molecular basis of disease,” Biochimica et biophysica acta, vol. 1822, no. 1, pp.2–8, 2012. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2010.11.010.
   Google Scholar
• P. Nowak-Sliwinska, T. Segura, and M. L. Iruela-Arispe, “The chicken chorioallantoic membrane model in biology, medicine and bioengineering,” Angiogenesis, vol. 17, no. 4, pp.779–804, 2014. DOI: 10.1007/s10456-014-9440-7.
   Google Scholar
• K. Zabielska-Koczywąs, et al., “Doxorubicin conjugated to glutathione stabilized gold nanoparticles (Au-GSH-Dox) as an effective therapeutic agent for feline injection-site sarcomas—chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane study,” Molecules, vol. 22, no. 2, pp.253, 2017. DOI: 10.3390/molecules22020253.
   Google Scholar
• A. B. Heeran, H. P. Berrigan, and J. O’Sullivan, “The Radiation-induced bystander effect (RIBE) and its connections with the hallmarks of cancer,” Radiat Res, vol. 192, no. 6, pp.668–679, 2019. DOI: 10.1667/RR15489.1.
   Google Scholar
• E. J. Hall, “The bystander effect,” Health Phys, vol. 85, no. 1, pp.31–35, 2003. DOI: 10.1097/00004032-200307000-00008.
   Google Scholar
• M. Najafi, R. Fardid, G. Hadadi, and M. Fardid, “The mechanisms of radiation-induced bystander effect,” J Biomed Phys Eng, vol. 4, pp. 163, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• A. C. Anselmo and S. Mitragotri, “A review of clinical translation of inorganic nanoparticles,” AAPS J, vol. 17, no. 5, pp.1041–1054, 2015. DOI: 10.1208/s12248-015-9780-2.
   Google Scholar
• N. R. S. Sibuyi, et al., “Multifunctional gold nanoparticles for improved diagnostic and therapeutic applications: a review,” Nanoscale Res Lett, vol. 16, no. 1, 2021. DOI:10.1186/s11671-021-03632-w
   Google Scholar
• E. B. Dickerson, et al., “Gold nanorod assisted near-infrared plasmonic photothermal therapy (PPTT) of squamous cell carcinoma in mice,” Cancer Lett, vol. 269, no. 1, pp. 57–66, 2008. DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2008.04.026.
   Google Scholar
• J. Ma, et al., “Biodegradable poly(amino acid)-gold-magnetic complex with efficient endocytosis for multimodal imaging-guided chemo-photothermal therapy,” ACS Nano, vol. 12, no. 9, pp. 9022–9032, 2018. DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b02750.
   Google Scholar
• S. K. Libutti, et al., “Preliminary results of a phase I clinical trial of CYT-6091: a pegylated colloidal gold-TNF nanomedicine,” Journal of Clinical Oncology, vol. 25, pp. 3603, 2007. DOI: 10.1200/jco.2007.25.18_suppl.3603.
   Google Scholar
• ClinicalTrials.gov, Tumor necrosis factor in patients undergoing surgery for primary cancer or metastatic cancer, (2012).
   Google Scholar
• ClinicalTrials.gov, TNF-bound colloidal gold in treating patients with advanced solid tumors, (2012).
   Google Scholar
• ClinicalTrials.gov, Pilot study of auroLase(tm) therapy in refractory and/or recurrent tumors of the head and neck, (2017).
   Google Scholar
• A. R. Rastinehad, et al., Gold nanoshell-localized photothermal ablation of prostate tumors in a clinical pilot device study, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, United State of America. 116 (2019) 18590–18596. DOI:10.1073/pnas.1906929116.
   Google Scholar
• C. J. Burrell, C. R. Howard, and F. A. Murphy, “Coronaviruses fenner and white’s medical virology.” (2017) 437.
   Google Scholar
• X. Li, H. K. H. Luk, S. K. P. Lau, and P. C. Y. Woo, “Human Coronaviruses: General Features,“ in Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2019. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-801238-3.95704-0.
   Google Scholar
• M. Bchetnia, C. Girard, C. Duchaine, and C. Laprise, “The outbreak of the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): a review of the current global status,” J Infect Public Health, vol. 13, no. 11, pp.1601–1610, 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.jiph.2020.07.011.
   Google Scholar
• M. A. Shereen, S. Khan, A. Kazmi, N. Bashir, and R. Siddique, “COVID-19 infection: origin, transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses,” J Adv Res, vol. 24, pp. 91–98, 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2020.03.005.
   Google Scholar
• N. Rabiee, et al., “Point-of-use rapid detection of sars-cov-2: nanotechnology-enabled solutions for the covid-19 pandemic,” Int J Mol Sci, vol. 21, no. 14, pp.5126, 2020. DOI: 10.3390/ijms21145126.
   Google Scholar
• R. Medhi, P. Srinoi, N. Ngo, H.-V. Tran, and T. R. Lee, “Nanoparticle-based strategies to combat COVID-19,” ACS Appl Nano Mater, vol. 3, no. 9, pp.8557–8580, 2020. DOI: 10.1021/acsanm.0c01978.
   Google Scholar
• M. Nicola, et al., “Evidence based management guideline for the COVID-19 pandemic-review article,” International Journal of Surgery, vol. 77, pp. 206–216, 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.04.001.
   Google Scholar
• G. Chauhan, et al., “Nanotechnology for COVID-19: therapeutics and vaccine research,” ACS Nano, vol. 14, no. 7, pp.7760–7782, 2020. DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c04006.
   Google Scholar
• L. S. F. Frederiksen, Y. Zhang, C. Foged, and A. Thakur, “The long road toward COVID-19 herd immunity: vaccine platform technologies and mass immunization strategies,” Front Immunol, vol. 11, 2020. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01817.
   Google Scholar
• Y. H. Chung, V. Beiss, S. N. Fiering, and N. F. Steinmetz, “COVID-19 vaccine frontrunners and their nanotechnology design,” ACS Nano, vol. 14, no. 10, pp.12522–12537, 2020. DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c07197.
   Google Scholar
• R. B. Nerli and S. C. Ghagane, “Chest computed tomography in relation to reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction in diagnosis of coronavirus disease 2019,” Indian Journal of Health Sciences and Biomedical Research (KLEU), vol. 13, no. 3, pp.175, 2020. DOI: 10.4103/kleuhsj.kleuhsj_276_20.
   Google Scholar
• J. Li, Z. Lin, and N. Xiong, “Effective chest CT–based diagnosis for coronavirus disease (COVID-19,” American Journal of Roentgenology, vol. 215, no. 3, pp.W37–W38, 2020. DOI: 10.2214/AJR.20.23548.
   Google Scholar
• L. Lan, et al., “Positive RT-PCR test results in patients recovered from COVID-19,” JAMA, vol. 323, no. 15, pp.1502–1503, 2020. DOI: 10.1001/jama.2020.2783.
   Google Scholar
• A. Zali, et al., Correlation between low-dose chest computed tomography and RT-PCR results for the diagnosis of COVID-19: A Report of 27,824 Cases in Tehran, Iran, Acad Radiol. (2020).
   Google Scholar
• S.-H. Mozhgani, H. A. Kermani, M. Norouzi, M. Arabi, and S. Soltani, “Nanotechnology based strategies for HIV-1 and HTLV-1 retroviruses gene detection, Heliyon,” Heliyon, vol. 6, no. 5, pp.e04048, 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04048.
   Google Scholar
• S. Patra, et al., “Emerging molecular prospective of SARS-CoV-2: feasible nanotechnology based detection and inhibition,” Front Microbiol, vol. 11, pp. 2098, 2020. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.02098.
   Google Scholar
• P. Huang, et al., “A rapid and specific assay for the detection of MERS-CoV,” Front Microbiol, vol. 9, pp. 1101, 2018. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01101.
   Google Scholar
• P. Moitra, M. Alafeef, K. Dighe, M. Frieman, and D. Pan, “Selective naked-eye detection of SARS-CoV-2 mediated by n gene targeted antisense oligonucleotide capped plasmonic nanoparticles,” ACS Nano, no. 6, pp. 7617–7627, 2020. DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c03822.
   Google Scholar
• C. Huang, T. Wen, F.-J. Shi, X.-Y. Zeng, and Y.-J. Jiao, “Rapid detection of IgM antibodies against the SARS-CoV-2 virus via colloidal gold nanoparticle-based lateral-flow assay, ACS Omega, vol. 5, no. 21, pp. 12550–12556, 2020. DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c01554.
   Google Scholar
• R. Augustine, et al., “Rapid antibody-based COVID-19 mass surveillance: relevance, challenges, and prospects in a pandemic and post-pandemic world,” J Clin Med, 2020 . DOI:10.3390/jcm9103372.
   Google Scholar
• J. Xiang, et al., “Evaluation of enzyme-linked immunoassay and colloidal gold-immunochromatographic assay kit for detection of novel coronavirus (SARS-Cov-2) causing an outbreak of pneumonia (COVID-19),“ MedRxiv, 2020. DOI: 10.1101/2020.02.27.20028787.
   Google Scholar
• L. A. Layqah and S. Eissa, “An electrochemical immunosensor for the Corona virus associated with the Middle East respiratory syndrome using an array of gold nanoparticle-modified carbon electrodes,” Microchimica Acta, vol. 186, no. 4, 2019. DOI:10.1007/s00604-019-3345-5
   Google Scholar
• Y. Wu, H. Dang, S. G. Park, L. Chen, and J. Choo, “SERS-PCR assays of SARS-CoV-2 target genes using Au nanoparticles-internalized Au nanodimple substrates,” Biosens Bioelectron, vol. 197, pp. 113736, 2022. DOI:10.1016/j.bios.2021.113736.
   Google Scholar
• J. C. Huang, et al., “Detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus nucleocapsid protein in human serum using a localized surface plasmon coupled fluorescence fiber-optic biosensor,” Biosens Bioelectron, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 320–325, 2009. DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2009.07.012.
   Google Scholar
• B. Yao, et al., “Rational engineering of the DNA walker amplification strategy by using a Au@Ti 3 C 2 @PEI-Ru(dcbpy 3 2+ nanocomposite biosensor for detection of the SARS-CoV-2 RdRp Gene,” ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, vol. 13, no. 17, pp. 19816–19824, 2021. DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c04453.
   Google Scholar
• P. Zhang, et al, “Evaluation of recombinant nucleocapsid and spike proteins for serological diagnosis of novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19),” MedRxiv, 2020. DOI: 10.1101/2020.03.17.20036954.
   Google Scholar
• X. Zhu, et al., “Multiplex reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification combined with nanoparticles-based lateral flow biosensor for diagnosis of COVID-19,“ Biosensors and Bioelectronics, vol. 166, pp. 1–7. 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2020.112437.
   Google Scholar
• R. Augustine, et al., “Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (Lamp): a rapid, sensitive, specific, and cost-effective point-of-care test for coronaviruses in the context of covid-19 pandemic,” Biology (Basel), vol. 9, pp. 182, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Y. Zhang, S. Qu, and L. Xu, “Progress in the study of virus detection methods: the possibility of alternative methods to validate virus inactivation,” biotechnology and Bioengineering, vol. 116, no. 8, pp.2095–2102, 2019. DOI: 10.1002/bit.27003.
   Google Scholar
• T. Wen, et al., “Development of a lateral flow immunoassay strip for rapid detection of IgG antibody against SARS-CoV-2 virus,” Analyst, vol. 145, no. 15, pp.5345–5352, 2020. DOI: 10.1039/D0AN00629G.
   Google Scholar
• M. S. Draz and H. Shafiee, “Applications of gold nanoparticles in virus detection,“ Theranostics, vol. 8 7 , pp. 1985–2017, 2018. DOI: 10.7150/thno.23856.
   Google Scholar
• E. Mauriz, “Recent progress in plasmonic biosensing schemes for virus detection,” Sensors, vol. 20, no. 17, pp.4745, 2020. DOI: 10.3390/s20174745.
   Google Scholar
• S. Chen, F. Guan, F. Candotti, K. Benlagha, N. O. S. Camara, A. A. Herrada, L. K. James, J. Lei, H. Miller, M. Kubo, Q. Ning, C. Liu, “The role of B cells in COVID-19 infection and vaccination“, COVID-19 Immune Response, 2020Frontiers in Immunology, vol. 13, pp. 1–13, 2022. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.988536.
   Google Scholar
• H. Hou, et al., “Detection of IgM and IgG antibodies in patients with coronavirus disease 2019,” Clin Transl Immunology, vol. 9, no. 5, pp.e1136, 2020. DOI: 10.1002/cti2.1136.
   Google Scholar
• N. H. Abd Ellah, S. F. Gad, K. Muhammad, G. E. Batiha, and H. F. Hetta, “Nanomedicine as a promising approach for diagnosis, treatment and prophylaxis against COVID-19,” Nanomedicine, vol. 15, no. 21, pp.2085–2102, 2020. DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2020-0247.
   Google Scholar
• S. Gurunathan, et al., “Antiviral potential of nanoparticles—Can nanoparticles fight against coronaviruses?,” Nanomaterials, vol. 10, no. 9, pp.1645, 2020. DOI: 10.3390/nano10091645.
   Google Scholar
• J. Kim, et al., “Porous gold nanoparticles for attenuating infectivity of influenza A virus,” journal of Nanobiotechnology, vol. 18, no. 1, pp.1–11, 2020. DOI: 10.1186/s12951-020-00611-8.
   Google Scholar
• X. Huang, et al., “Novel gold nanorod-based HR1 peptide inhibitor for Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus,” ACS applied Materials & Interfaces, vol. 11, no. 22, pp.19799–19807, 2019. DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b04240.
   Google Scholar
• A. Mehranfar and M. Izadyar, “Theoretical design of functionalized gold nanoparticles as antiviral agents against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2),” the Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, vol. 11, no. 24, pp.10284–10289, 2020. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.0c02677.
   Google Scholar
• V. Vijayan, M. Mohapatra, U. Uthaman, and P. Park, “Recent advances in nanovaccines using biomimetic immunomodulatory materials,” Pharmaceutics, vol. 11, no. 10, pp.534, 2019. DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11100534.
   Google Scholar
• T. Zaheer, K. Pal, and I. Zaheer, “Topical review on nano-vaccinology: biochemical promises and key challenges,“ Process Biochemistry, vol. 100, pp. 237–244, 2020. DOI:10.1016/j.procbio.2020.09.028.
   Google Scholar
• A. Gao, et al., “Designing a novel nano-vaccine against SARS-CoV-2,” Nano biomedicine and Engineering, vol. 12, no. 4, pp.321–324, 2020. DOI: 10.5101/nbe.v12i4.p321-324.
   Google Scholar
• B. Bernocchi, R. Carpentier, and D. Betbeder, “Nasal nanovaccines,” international Journal of Pharmaceutics, vol. 530, no. 1–2, pp.128–138, 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.07.012.
   Google Scholar
• E. V. R. Campos, et al., “How can nanotechnology help to combat COVID-19? Opportunities and urgent need,” journal of Nanobiotechnology, vol. 18, no. 1, pp.1–23, 2020. DOI: 10.1186/s12951-020-00685-4.
   Google Scholar
• L. A. Dykman and N. G. Khlebtsov, “Immunological properties of gold nanoparticles,” chemical Science, vol. 8, no. 3, pp.1719–1735, 2017. DOI: 10.1039/C6SC03631G.
   Google Scholar
• H. Sekimukai, et al., “Gold nanoparticle-adjuvanted S protein induces a strong antigen-specific IgG response against severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus infection, but fails to induce protective antibodies and limit eosinophilic infiltration in lungs,” microbiology and Immunology, vol. 64, no. 1, pp.33–51, 2020. DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12754.
   Google Scholar
• R. García-Álvarez, M. Hadjidemetriou, A. Sánchez-Iglesias, L. M. Liz-Marzán, and K. Kostarelos, “In vivo formation of protein Corona on gold nanoparticles,” The Effect of Their Size and Shape, Nanoscale, vol. 10, pp. 1256–1264, 2018.
   Google Scholar
• J. Liu and Q. Peng, “Protein-gold nanoparticle interactions and their possible impact on biomedical applications,” Acta Biomaterialia, vol. 55, pp. 13–27, 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2017.03.055.
   Google Scholar
• H.-W. Chen, et al., “Synthetic virus-like particles prepared via protein Corona formation enable effective vaccination in an avian model of coronavirus infection,” Biomaterials, vol. 106, pp. 111–118, 2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.08.018.
   Google Scholar
• S. A. C. Carabineiro, “Applications of gold nanoparticles in nanomedicine: recent advances in vaccines,” Molecules, vol. 22, no. 5, pp.857, 2017. DOI: 10.3390/molecules22050857.
   Google Scholar