Pharmacokinetic considerations about antiseizure medications in the elderly

References

• Beghi E. The epidemiology of epilepsy. Neuroepidemiology. 2020;54:185–191.
   Google Scholar
• Italiano D, Capuano A, Alibrandi A, et al. Indications of newer and older anti-epileptic drug use: findings from a southern Italian general practice setting from 2005-2011. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2015;79:1010–1019.
   Google Scholar
• Perucca E, Berlowitz D, Birnbaum A, et al. Pharmacological and clinical aspects of antiepileptic drug use in the elderly. Epilepsy Res. 2006;68:49–63.
   Google Scholar
• Lattanzi S, Trinka E, Del Giovane C, et al. Antiepileptic drug monotherapy for epilepsy in the elderly: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Epilepsia. 2019;60:2245–2254.
   Google Scholar
• Zaccara G, Perucca E. Interactions between antiepileptic drugs, and between antiepileptic drugs and other drugs. Epileptic Disord. 2014;16:409–431.
   Google Scholar
• da Costa JP, Vitorino R, Silva GM, et al. A synopsis on aging—Theories, mechanisms and future prospects. Ageing Res Rev. 2016;29:90–112.
   Google Scholar
• Leppik IE. Epilepsy in the elderly. Epilepsia. 2006;47:65–70.
   Google Scholar
• Nakamura K, Ogoshi K, Makuuchi H. Influence of aging, gastric mucosal atrophy and dietary habits on gastric secretion. Hepatogastroenterology. 2006;53:624–628.
   Google Scholar
• Shi S, Klotz U. Age-related changes in pharmacokinetics. Curr Drug Metab. 2011;12:601–610.
   Google Scholar
• Reeve E, Wiese MD, Mangoni AA. Alterations in drug disposition in older adults. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2015;11:491–508.
   Google Scholar
• Abuhelwa AY, Williams DB, Upton RN, et al. Food, gastrointestinal pH, and models of oral drug absorption. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2017;112:234–248.
   Google Scholar
• Lee SK. Epilepsy in the elderly: treatment and consideration of comorbid diseases. J Epilepsy Res. 2018;9:27–35.
   Google Scholar
• Welker KL, Mycyk MB. Pharmacology in the geriatric patient. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2016;34:469–481.
   Google Scholar
• Gidal BE. Drug absorption in the elderly: biopharmaceutical considerations for the antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsy Res. 2006;68:65–69.
   Google Scholar
• Perucca E. Age-related changes in pharmacokinetics: predictability and assessment methods. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2007;81:183–199.
   Google Scholar
• Meeuwsen S, Horgan GW, Elia M. The relationship between BMI and percent body fat, measured by bioelectrical impedance, in a large adult sample is curvilinear and influenced by age and sex. Clin Nutr. 2010;29:560–566.
   Google Scholar
• McLean AJ, Le Couteur DG. Aging biology and geriatric clinical pharmacology. Pharmacol Rev. 2004;56:163–184.
   Google Scholar
• Patsalos PN, Zugman M, Lake C, et al. Serum protein binding of 25 antiepileptic drugs in a routine clinical setting: a comparison of free non–protein-bound concentrations. Epilepsia. 2017;58:1234–1243.
   Google Scholar
• Tan JL, Eastment JG, Poudel A, et al. Age-related changes in hepatic function: an update on implications for drug therapy. Drugs Aging. 2015;32:999–1008.
   Google Scholar
• Parkinson A, Mudra DR, Johnson C, et al. The effects of gender, age, ethnicity, and liver cirrhosis on cytochrome P450 enzyme activity in human liver microsomes and inducibility in cultured human hepatocytes. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2004;199:193–209.
   Google Scholar
• Cotreau MM, Von Moltke LL, Greenblatt DJ. The influence of age and sex on the clearance of cytochrome P450 3A substrates. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2005;44:33–60.
   Google Scholar
• Butler JM, Begg EJ. Free drug metabolic clearance in elderly people. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2008;47:297–321.
   Google Scholar
• Le Couteur DG, McLean AJ. The aging liver: drug clearance and an oxygen diffusion barrier hypothesis. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1998;34:359–373.
   Google Scholar
• Yeung CK, Shen DD, Thummel KE, et al. Effects of chronic kidney disease and uremia on hepatic drug metabolism and transport. Kidney Int. 2014;85:522–528.
   Google Scholar
• Tan ML, Yoshida K, Zhao P, et al. Effect of chronic kidney disease on nonrenal elimination pathways: a systematic assessment of CYP1A2, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and OATP. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2018;103:854–867.
   Google Scholar
• Bolignano D, Mattace-Raso F, Sijbrands EJG, et al. The aging kidney revisited: A systematic review. Ageing Res Rev. 2014;14:65–80.
   Google Scholar
• Baba M, Shimbo T, Horio M, et al. Longitudinal study of the decline in renal function in healthy subjects. PLoS One. 2015;10. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0129036
   Google Scholar
• Conway JM, Eberly LE, Collins JF, et al. Factors in variability of serial gabapentin concentrations in elderly patients with epilepsy. Pharmacotherapy. 2017;37:1197–1203.
   Google Scholar
• Shih JJ, Whitlock JB, Chimato N, et al. Epilepsy treatment in adults and adolescents: expert opinion, 2016. Epilepsy Behav. 2017;69:186–222.
   Google Scholar
• Fox J, Ajinkya S, Lekoubou A. Patterns of antiepileptic drug use among elderly patients with epilepsy: 2004-2015. Epilepsy Res. 2020;161. DOI:10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2020.106297
   Google Scholar
• Cloyd JC, Marino S, Birnbaum AK. Factors affecting antiepileptic drug pharmacokinetics in community-dwelling elderly. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2007;81:201–210.
   Google Scholar
• Koyama H, Sugioka N, Uno A, et al. Age-related alteration of carbamazepine-serum protein binding in man. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1999;51:1009–1014.
   Google Scholar
• Battino D, Croci D, Rossini A, et al. Serum carbamazepine concentrations in elderly patients: A case-matched pharmacokinetic evaluation based on therapeutic drug monitoring data. Epilepsia. 2003;44:923–929.
   Google Scholar
• Ahmed GF, Brundage RC, Marino SE, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of unbound and total drug concentrations following intravenously administered carbamazepine in elderly and younger adult patients with epilepsy. J Clin Pharmacol. 2013;53:276–284.
   Google Scholar
• Punyawudho B, Ramsay ER, Brundage RC, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of carbamazepine in elderly patients. Ther Drug Monit. 2012;34:176–181.
   Google Scholar
• Greenblatt D, Divoll M, Puri S, et al. Clobazam kinetics in the elderly. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1981;12:631–636.
   Google Scholar
• Greenblatt DJ, Divoll M, Puri SK, et al. Reduced single-dose clearance of clobazam in elderly men predicts increased multiple-dose accumulation. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1983;8:83–94.
   Google Scholar
• Martines C, Gatti G, Sasso E, et al. The disposition of primidone in elderly patients. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1990;30:607–611.
   Google Scholar
• Messina S, Battino D, Croci D, et al. Phenobarbital pharmacokinetics in old age: a case-matched evaluation based on therapeutic drug monitoring data. Epilepsia. 2005;46:372–377.
   Google Scholar
• Eadie M, Lander C, Hooper W, et al. Factors influencing plasma phenobarbitone levels in epileptic patients. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1977;4:541–547.
   Google Scholar
• Birnbaum A, Hardie NA, Leppik IE, et al. Variability of total phenytoin serum concentrations within elderly nursing home residents. Neurology. 2003;60:555–559.
   Google Scholar
• Patterson M, Heazelwood R, Smithurst B, et al. Plasma protein binding of phenytoin in the aged: in vivo studies. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1982;13:423–425.
   Google Scholar
• Ahn JE, Cloyd JC, Brundage RC, et al. Phenytoin half-life and clearance during maintenance therapy in adults and elderly patients with epilepsy. Neurology. 2008;71:38–43.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson GD, Hakimian S. Pharmacokinetic factors to consider in the selection of antiseizure drugs for older patients with epilepsy. Drugs Aging. 2018;35:687–698.
   Google Scholar
• Battino D, Croci D, Mamoli D, et al. Influence of aging on serum phenytoin concentrations: A pharmacokinetic analysis based on therapeutic drug monitoring data. Epilepsy Res. 2004;59:155–165.
   Google Scholar
• Wright DFB, Begg EJ. The “apparent clearance” of free phenytoin in elderly vs. younger adults. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2010;70:132–138.
   Google Scholar
• Higuchi K, Yamashita D, Kashihara Y, et al. Population pharmacokinetic analysis of phenytoin after intravenous administration of fosphenytoin in adult and elderly epileptic patients. Ther Drug Monit. 2019;41:674–680.
   Google Scholar
• Perucca E, Grimaldi R, Gatti G, et al. Pharmacokinetics of valproic acid in the elderly. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1984;17:665–669.
   Google Scholar
• Fattore C, Messina S, Battino D, et al. The influence of old age and enzyme inducing comedication on the pharmacokinetics of valproic acid at steady-state: A case-matched evaluation based on therapeutic drug monitoring data. Epilepsy Res. 2006;70:153–160.
   Google Scholar
• Bryson S, Verma N, Scott P, et al. Pharmacokinetics of valproic acid in young and elderly subjects. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1983;16:104–105.
   Google Scholar
• Kessler SK, McGinnis E, Practical A. Guide to treatment of childhood absence epilepsy. Pediatr Drugs. 2019;21:15–24.
   Google Scholar
• Smith GA, McKauge L, Dubetz D, et al. Factors influencing plasma concentrations of ethosuximide. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1979;4:38–52.
   Google Scholar
• Battino D, Cusi C, Franceschetti S, et al. Ethosuximide plasma concentrations: influence of age and associated concomitant therapy. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1982;7:176–180.
   Google Scholar
• Perucca E. Pharmacokinetic variability of new antiepileptic drugs at different ages. Ther Drug Monit. 2005;27:714–717.
   Google Scholar
• Ahmed GF, Bathena SPR, Brundage RC, et al. Pharmacokinetics and saturable absorption of gabapentin in nursing home elderly patients. Aaps J. 2017;19:551–556.
   Google Scholar
• Rimmer E, Kongola G, Richens A. Inhibition of the enzyme, GABA‐aminotransferase in human platelets by vigabatrin, a potential antiepileptic drug. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1988;25:251–259.
   Google Scholar
• May TW, Rambeck B, Neb R, et al. Serum concentrations of pregabalin in patients with epilepsy: the influence of dose, age, and comedication. Ther Drug Monit. 2007;29:789–794.
   Google Scholar
• Arif H, Svoronos A, Resor SR, et al. The effect of age and comedication on lamotrigine clearance, tolerability, and efficacy. Epilepsia. 2011;52:1905–1913.
   Google Scholar
• Johannessen Landmark C, Baftiu A, Tysse I, et al. Pharmacokinetic variability of four newer antiepileptic drugs, lamotrigine, levetiracetam, oxcarbazepine, and topiramate: a comparison of the impact of age and comedication. Ther Drug Monit. 2012;34:440–445.
   Google Scholar
• Contin M, Mohamed S, Albani F, et al. Levetiracetam clinical pharmacokinetics in elderly and very elderly patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy Res. 2012;98:130–134.
   Google Scholar
• Patsalos PN. Pharmacokinetic profile of levetiracetamtoward ideal characteristics. Pharmacol Ther. 2000;85:77–85.
   Google Scholar
• van Heiningen PNM, Eve MD, Oosterhuis B, et al. The influence of age on the pharmacokinetics of the antiepileptic agent oxcarbazepine. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1991;50:410–419.
   Google Scholar
• Garnett WR. Clinical pharmacology of topiramate: a review. Epilepsia. 2000;41:61–65.
   Google Scholar
• Doose DR, Larson KL, Natarajan J, et al. Comparative single-dose pharmacokinetics of topiramate in elderly versus young men and women. Epilepsia. 1998;39:56.
   Google Scholar
• Boisvert A, Barbeau G, Belanger PM. Pharmacokinetics of sulfisoxazole in young and elderly subjects. Gerontology. 1984;30:125–131.
   Google Scholar
• Snel S, Jansen FA, Mengel HB, et al. The pharmacokinetics of tiagabine in healthy elderly volunteers and elderly patients with epilepsy. J Clin Pharmacol. 1997;37:1015–1020.
   Google Scholar
• Richens A, Banfield CR, Salfi M, et al. Single and multiple dose pharmacokinetics of felbamate in the elderly. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1997;44:129–134.
   Google Scholar
• Schiltmeyer B, Cawello W, Horstmann R. Pharmacokinetics of the new antiepileptic drug SPM 927 in human subjects with different age and gender. BMC News Views. 2004;4. DOI:10.1186/2048-4623-4-s1-p0001
   Google Scholar
• Svendsen T, Brodtkorb E, Baftiu A, et al. Therapeutic drug monitoring of lacosamide in Norway: focus on pharmacokinetic variability, efficacy and tolerability. Neurochem Res. 2017;42:2077–2083.
   Google Scholar
• Schoemaker R, Wade JR, Stockis A. Brivaracetam population pharmacokinetics and exposure-response modeling in adult subjects with partial-onset seizures. J Clin Pharmacol. 2016;56:1591–1602.
   Google Scholar
• Stockis A, Sargentini-Maier ML, Horsmans Y. Brivaracetam disposition in mild to severe hepatic impairment. J Clin Pharmacol. 2013;53:633–641.
   Google Scholar
• Russo E, Citraro R, Mula M. The preclinical discovery and development of brivaracetam for the treatment of focal epilepsy. Expert Opin Drug Discov. 2017;12:1169–1178.
   Google Scholar
• de Biase S, Gigli GL, Nilo A, et al. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations for the clinical efficacy of perampanel in focal onset seizures. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2019;15:93–102.
   Google Scholar
• Almeida L, Falcão A, Maia J, et al. Single-dose and steady-state pharmacokinetics of eslicarbazepine acetate (BIA 2-093) in healthy elderly and young subjects. J Clin Pharmacol. 2005;45:1062–1066.
   Google Scholar
• Svendsen T, Brodtkorb E, Reimers A, et al. Pharmacokinetic variability, efficacy and tolerability of eslicarbazepine acetate–A national approach to the evaluation of therapeutic drug monitoring data and clinical outcome. Epilepsy Res. 2017;129:125–131.
   Google Scholar
• Johannessen Landmark C, Johannessen SI, Tomson T. Host factors affecting antiepileptic drug delivery-pharmacokinetic variability. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2012;64:896–910.
   Google Scholar
• Italiano D, Perucca E. Clinical pharmacokinetics of new-generation antiepileptic drugs at the extremes of age: an update. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2013;52:627–645.
   Google Scholar
• Davies M, Saxena A, Kingswood JC. Management of everolimus-associated adverse events in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex: a practical guide. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2017;12. DOI:10.1186/s13023-017-0581-9
   Google Scholar
• Leporini C, Marrazzo G, Mumoli L, et al. Adverse drug reactions reporting in Calabria (Southern Italy) in the four-year period 2011-2014: impact of a regional pharmacovigilance project in light of the new European Legislation. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2017;16:515–522.
   Google Scholar
• Leporini C, De Sarro G, Russo E. Adherence to therapy and adverse drug reactions: is there a link? Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2014;13:41–55.
   Google Scholar
• Jankovic SM, Dostic M. Choice of antiepileptic drugs for the elderly: possible drug interactions and adverse effects. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2012;8:81–91.
   Google Scholar
• Bertilsson L, Toon T. Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacological effects of carbamazepine and carbamazepine-10,11-Epoxide: an update. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1986;11:177–198.
   Google Scholar
• Patsalos PN. Drug interactions with the newer antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) - Part 2: pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions between AEDs and drugs used to treat non-epilepsy disorders. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2013;52:1045–1061.
   Google Scholar
• Stockis A, Watanabe S, Scheen AJ. Effect of brivaracetam on CYP3A activity, measured by oral midazolam. J Clin Pharmacol. 2015;55:543–548.
   Google Scholar
• Bialer M, Johannessen SI, Levy RH, et al. Progress report on new antiepileptic drugs: A summary of the Twelfth Eilat Conference (EILAT XII). Epilepsy Res. 2015;111:85–141.
   Google Scholar
• De Caro C, Leo A, Citraro R, et al. The potential role of cannabinoids in epilepsy treatment. Expert Rev Neurother. 2017;17:1069–1079.
   Google Scholar
• Gaston TE, Bebin EM, Cutter GR, et al. Interactions between cannabidiol and commonly used antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia. 2017;58:1586–1592.
   Google Scholar
• Ben-Menachem E, Gunning B, Arenas Cabrera CM, et al. A Phase II randomized trial to explore the potential for pharmacokinetic drug–drug interactions with stiripentol or valproate when combined with cannabidiol in patients with epilepsy. CNS Drugs. 2020;34:661–672.
   Google Scholar
• Klotz KA, Hirsch M, Heers M, et al. Effects of cannabidiol on brivaracetam plasma levels. Epilepsia. 2019;60:e74–7.
   Google Scholar
• Marcath LA, Xi J, Hoylman E, et al. Comparison of nine drug-drug interaction screening tools when assessing oral oncolytics. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2018;103:S44.
   Google Scholar
• Johannessen Landmark C, Patsalos PN. Drug interactions involving the new second- and third-generation antiepileptic drugs. Expert Rev Neurother. 2010;10:119–140.
   Google Scholar
• Bruun E, Virta LJ, Kälviäinen R, et al. Co-morbidity and clinically significant interactions between antiepileptic drugs and other drugs in elderly patients with newly diagnosed epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2017;73:71–76.
   Google Scholar
• Zaccara G, Lattanzi S, Cincotta M, et al. Drug treatments in patients with cardiac diseases and epilepsy. Acta Neurol Scand. 2020;142:37–49.
   Google Scholar
• Galgani A, Palleria C, Iannone LF, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions of clinical interest between direct oral anticoagulants and antiepileptic drugs. Front Neurol. 2018;9:2019–2020.
   Google Scholar
• Hassan Y, Awaisu A, Aziz NA, et al. The complexity of achieving anticoagulation control in the face of warfarin - phenytoin interaction: an Asian case report. Pharm World Sci. 2005;27:16–19.
   Google Scholar
• Perucca E. Clinically relevant drug interactions with antiepileptic drugs. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2006;61:246–255.
   Google Scholar
• Yoon HW, Giraldo EA, Wijdicks EFM. Valproic acid and warfarin: an underrecognized drug interaction. Neurocrit Care. 2011;15:182–185.
   Google Scholar
• Vaz-da-Silva M, Almeida L, Falcão A, et al. Effect of eslicarbazepine acetate on the steady-state pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of warfarin in healthy subjects during a three-stage, open-label, multiple-dose, single-period study. Clin Ther. 2010;32:179–192.
   Google Scholar
• Greger J, Bates V, Mechtler L, et al. Review of cannabis and interactions with anticoagulant and antiplatelet agents. J Clin Pharmacol. 2020;60:432–438.
   Google Scholar
• Ucar M, Neuvonen M, Luurila H, et al. Carbamazepine markedly reduces serum concentrations of simvastatin and simvastatin acid. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2004;59:879–882.
   Google Scholar
• Pulitano P, Franco V, Mecarelli O, et al. Effects of eslicarbazepine acetate on lipid profile and sodium levels in patients with epilepsy. Seizure. 2017;53:1–3.
   Google Scholar
• Murphy MJ, Dominiczak MH. Efficacy of statin therapy: possible effect of phenytoin. Postgrad Med J. 1999;75:359–360.
   Google Scholar
• Mintzer S, Miller R, Shah K, et al. Long-term effect of antiepileptic drug switch on serum lipids and C-reactive protein. Epilepsy Behav. 2016;58:127–132.
   Google Scholar
• Stephen LJ. Drug treatment of epilepsy in elderly people: focus on valproic acid. Drugs Aging. 2003;20:141–152.
   Google Scholar
• Greb WH, Buscher G, Dierdorf H‐D, et al. The effect of liver enzyme inhibition by cimetidine and enzyme induction by phenobarbitone on the pharmacokinetics of paroxetine. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1989;80:95–98.
   Google Scholar
• Spaans E, Van Den Heuvel M, Schnabel P, et al. Concomitant use of mirtazapine and phenytoin: a drug-drug interaction study in healthy male subjects. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2002;58:423–429.
   Google Scholar
• Helland A, Spigset O. Low serum concentrations of reboxetine in 2 patients treated with CYP3A4 inducers [6]. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2007;27:308–310.
   Google Scholar
• Spina E, Santoro V, D’Arrigo C. Clinically relevant pharmacokinetic drug interactions with second-generation antidepressants: an update. Clin Ther. 2008;30:1206–1227.
   Google Scholar
• Spina E, De Leon J. Clinically relevant interactions between newer antidepressants and second-generation antipsychotics. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2014;10:721–746.
   Google Scholar
• Johannessen SI, Johannessen Landmark C. Antiepileptic drug interactions - principles and clinical implications. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2010;8:254–267.
   Google Scholar
• Mula M, Monaco F. Antiepileptic-antipsychotic drug interactions: A critical review of the evidence. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2002;25:280–289.
   Google Scholar
• Morano A, Fanella M, Albini M, et al. Cannabinoids in the treatment of epilepsy: current status and future prospects. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2020;16:381–396.
   Google Scholar
• Wu CC, Pai TY, Hsiao FY, et al. The effect of different carbapenem antibiotics (Ertapenem, Imipenem/Cilastatin, and Meropenem) on serum valproic acid concentrations. Ther Drug Monit. 2016;38:587–592.
   Google Scholar
• Barzaghi N, Gatti G, Crema F, et al. Inhibition by erythromycin of the conversion of carbamazepine to its active 10,11‐epoxide metabolite. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1987;24:836–838.
   Google Scholar
• Barzaghi N, Gatti G, Crema F, et al. Effect of flurithromycin, a new macrolide antibiotic, on carbamazepine disposition in normal subjects. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res. 1988;8:101–105.
   Google Scholar
• Hansen JM, Kampmann JP, Siersbæk‐Nielsen K, et al. The effect of different sulfonamides on phenytoin metabolism in man. Acta Med Scand. 1979;205:106–110.
   Google Scholar
• Antoniou T, Gomes T, Mamdani MM, et al. Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole-induced phenytoin toxicity in the elderly: a population-based study. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2011;71:544–549.
   Google Scholar
• Brophy TROR, McCafferty J, Tyrer JH, et al. Bioavailability of oral dexamethasone during high dose steroid therapy in neurological patients. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1983;24:103–108.
   Google Scholar
• Frey BM, Frey FJ. Phenytoin modulates the pharmacokinetics of prednisolone and the pharmacodynamics of prednisolone as assessed by the inhibition of the mixed lymphocyte reaction in humans. Eur J Clin Invest. 1984;14:1–6.
   Google Scholar
• Spina E, Pisani F, Perucca E. Clinically significant pharmacokinetic drug interactions with carbamazepine. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1996;31:198–214.
   Google Scholar
• Lackner TE. Interaction of dexamethasone with phenytoin. Pharmacother J Hum Pharmacol Drug Ther. 1991;11:344–347.
   Google Scholar
• Kim S, Östör AJK, Nisar MK. Interleukin-6 and cytochrome-P450, reason for concern? Rheumatol Int. 2012;32:2601–2604.
   Google Scholar
• Aitken AE, Richardson TA, Morgan ET. Regulation of drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters in inflammation. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2006;46:123–149.
   Google Scholar
• Contin M, Bisulli F, Santucci M, et al. Effect of valproic acid on perampanel pharmacokinetics in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2018;59:e103–8.
   Google Scholar
• Ahn JE, Bathena SPR, Brundage RC, et al. Iron supplements in nursing home patients associated with reduced carbamazepine absorption. Epilepsy Res. 2018;147:115–118.
   Google Scholar
• Perucca E. Drug interactions with carbamazepine: an ever expanding list? Epilepsy Res. 2018;147:119–120.
   Google Scholar
• Patsalos PN, Spencer EP, Berry DJ. Therapeutic drug monitoring of antiepileptic drugs in epilepsy: a 2018 update. Ther Drug Monit. 2018;40:526–548.
   Google Scholar