Assessment of evidence for nanosized titanium dioxide-generated DNA strand breaks and oxidatively damaged DNA in cells and animal models

References

• Armand, L., A. Tarantini, D. Beal, M. Biola-Clier, L. Bobyk, S. Sorieul, K. Pernet-Gallay, et al. 2016. “Long-Term Exposure of A549 Cells to Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Induces DNA Damage and Sensitizes Cells towards Genotoxic Agents.” Nanotoxicology 10: 913–923.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asare, N., N. Duale, H. H. Slagsvold, B. Lindeman, A. K. Olsen, J. Gromadzka-Ostrowska, S. Meczynska-Wielgosz, M. Kruszewski, G. Brunborg, and C. Instanes. 2016. “Genotoxicity and Gene Expression Modulation of Silver and Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles in Mice.” Nanotoxicology 10: 312–321.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asare, N., C. Instanes, W. J. Sandberg, M. Refsnes, P. Schwarze, M. Kruszewski, and G. Brunborg. 2012. “Cytotoxic and Genotoxic Effects of Silver Nanoparticles in Testicular Cells.” Toxicology 291: 65–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barregard, L., P. Møller, T. Henriksen, V. Mistry, G. Koppen, P. Rossner, R. Sram, et al. 2013. “Human and Methodological Sources of Variability in the Measurement of Urinary 8-Oxo-7,8-Dihydro-2'-Deoxyguanosine.” Antioxidants & Redox Signaling 18: 2377–2391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bettini, S., E. Boutet-Robinet, C. Cartier, C. Comera, E. Gaultier, J. Dupuy, N. Naud, et al. 2017. “Food-Grade TiO2 Impairs Intestinal and Systemic Immune Homeostasis, Initiates Preneoplastic Lesions and Promotes Aberrant Crypt Development in the Rat Colon.” Scientific Reports 7: 40373.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biola-Clier, M., D. Beal, S. Caillat, S. Libert, L. Armand, N. Herlin-Boime, S. Sauvaigo, T. Douki, and M. Carriere. 2017. “Comparison of the DNA Damage Response in BEAS-2B and A549 Cells Exposed to Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles.” Mutagenesis 32: 161–172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cadet, J., S. Loft, R. Olinski, M. D. Evans, K. Bialkowski, W. J. Richard, P. C. Dedon, P. Møller, M. M. Greenberg, and M. S. Cooke. 2012. “Biologically Relevant Oxidants and Terminology, Classification and Nomenclature of Oxidatively Generated Damage to Nucleobases and 2-Deoxyribose in Nucleic Acids.” Free Radical Research 46: 367–381.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, A., G. Koppen, V. Valdiglesias, M. Dusinska, M. Kruszewski, P. Møller, E. Rojas, et al. 2014. “The Comet Assay as a Tool for Human Biomonitoring Studies: The ComNet Project.” Mutation Research 759: 27–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, A. R. 2011. “The Use of Bacterial Repair Endonucleases in the Comet Assay.” Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, NJ) 691: 137–147.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Collins, A. R., A. A. Oscoz, G. Brunborg, I. Gaivao, L. Giovannelli, M. Kruszewski, C. C. Smith, and R. Stetina. 2008. “The Comet Assay: Topical Issues.” Mutagenesis 23: 143–151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demir, E., H. Akca, F. Turna, S. Aksakal, D. Burgucu, B. Kaya, O. Tokgun, G. Vales, A. Creus, and R. Marcos. 2015. “Genotoxic and Cell-Transforming Effects of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles.” Environmental Research 136: 300–308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demir, E., D. Burgucu, F. Turna, S. Aksakal, and B. Kaya. 2013. “Determination of TiO2, ZrO2, and Al2O3 Nanoparticles on Genotoxic Responses in Human Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes and Cultured Embyronic Kidney Cells.” Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A 76: 990–1002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Bucchianico, S., F. Cappellini, B. F. Le, Y. Zhang, K. Dreij, and H. L. Karlsson. 2017. “Genotoxicity of TiO2 Nanoparticles Assessed by Mini-Gel Comet Assay and Micronucleus Scoring with Flow Cytometry.” Mutagenesis 32: 127–137.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doak, S. H., and M. Dusinska. 2017. “NanoGenotoxicology: Present and the Future.” Mutagenesis 32: 1–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dorier, M., D. Beal, C. Marie-Desvergne, M. Dubosson, F. Barreau, E. Houdeau, N. Herlin-Boime, and M. Carriere. 2017. “Continuous in Vitro Exposure of Intestinal Epithelial Cells to E171 Food Additive Causes Oxidative Stress, Inducing Oxidation of DNA Bases but No Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress.” Nanotoxicology 11: 751–761.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Du, H., X. Zhu, C. Fan, S. Xu, Y. Wang, and Y. Zhou. 2012. “Oxidative Damage and OGG1 Expression Induced by a Combined Effect of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles and Lead Acetate in Human Hepatocytes.” Environmental Toxicology 27: 590–597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunford, R., A. Salinaro, L. Cai, N. Serpone, S. Horikoshi, H. Hidaka, and J. Knowland. 1997. “Chemical Oxidation and DNA Damage Catalysed by Inorganic Sunscreen Ingredients.” FEBS Letters 418: 87–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Yamani, N., A. R. Collins, E. Runden-Pran, L. M. Fjellsbo, S. Shaposhnikov, S. Zielonddiny, and M. Dusinska. 2017. “In Vitro Genotoxicity Testing of Four Reference Metal Nanomaterials, Titanium Dioxide, Zinc Oxide, Cerium Oxide and Silver: Towards Reliable Hazard Assessment.” Mutagenesis 32: 117–126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ersson, C., P. Møller, L. Forchhammer, S. Loft, A. Azqueta, R. W. L. Godschalk, F. J. van Schooten, et al. 2013. “An ECVAG Inter-Laboratory Validation Study of the Comet Assay: Inter- and Intra-Laboratory Variation of DNA Strand Breaks and FPG-Sensitive Sites in Human Mononuclear Cells.” Mutagenesis 28: 279–286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• European Standards Committee on Oxidative DNA Damage (ESCODD). 2002. “Comparative Analysis of Baseline 8-Oxo-7,8-Dihydroguanine in Mammalian Cell DNA, by Different Methods in Different Laboratories: An Approach to Consensus.” Carcinogenesis 23: 2129–2133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• European Standards Committee on Oxidative DNA Damage (ESCODD). 2003. “Measurement of DNA Oxidation in Human Cells by Chromatographic and Enzymic Methods.” Free Radical Biology & Medicine 34: 1089–1099.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• European Standards Committee on Oxidative DNA Damage (ESCODD), Gedik, C. M., and A. Collins. 2005. “Establishing the Background Level of Base Oxidation in Human Lymphocyte DNA: Results of an Inter-Laboratory Validation Study.” FASEB Journal 19: 82–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferraro, D., U. Anselmi-Tamburini, I. G. Tredici, V. Ricci, and P. Sommi. 2016. “Overestimation of Nanoparticles-Induced DNA Damage Determined by the Comet Assay.” Nanotoxicology 10: 861–870.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forchhammer, L., C. Johansson, S. Loft, L. Möller, R. W. Godschalk, S. A. Langie, G. D. Jones, et al. 2010. “Variation in the Measurement of DNA Damage by Comet Assay Measured by the ECVAG Inter-Laboratory Validation Trial.” Mutagenesis 25: 113–123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forchhammer, L., C. Ersson, S. Loft, L. Möller, R. W. Godschalk, F. J. van Schooten, G. D. Jones, et al. 2012. “Inter-Laboratory Variation in DNA Damage Using a Standard Comet Assay Protocol.” Mutagenesis 27: 665–672.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franchi, L. P., B. B. Manshian, T. A. de Souza, S. J. Soenen, E. Y. Matsubara, J. M. Rosolen, and C. S. Takahashi. 2015. “Cyto- and Genotoxic Effects of Metallic Nanoparticles in Untransformed Human Fibroblast.” Toxicology In Vitro 29: 1319–1331.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerloff, K., C. Albrecht, A. W. Boots, I. Forster, and R. P. F. Schins. 2009. “Cytotoxicity and Oxidative DNA Damage by Nanoparticles in Human Intestinal Caco-2 Cells.” Nanotoxicology 3: 355–364.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godschalk, R. W. L., C. Ersson, M. St Pnik, M. Ferli Ska, J. Palus, J. P. Teixeira, S. Costa, et al. 2014. “Variation of DNA Damage Levels in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells Isolated in Different Laboratories.” Mutagenesis 29: 241–249.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gurr, J. R., A. S. Wang, C. H. Chen, and K. Y. Jan. 2005. “Ultrafine Titanium Dioxide Particles in the Absence of Photoactivation Can Induce Oxidative Damage to Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells.” Toxicology 213: 66–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hattori, K., K. Nakadate, A. Morii, T. Noguchi, Y. Ogasawara, and K. Ishii. 2017. “Exposure to Nano-Size Titanium Dioxide Causes Oxidative Damages in Human Mesothelial Cells: The Crystal Form Rather than Size of Particle Contributes to Cytotoxicity.” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 492: 218–223.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huk, A., A. R. Collins, Y. N. El, C. Porredon, A. Azqueta, L. J. de, and M. Dusinska. 2015. “Critical Factors to Be Considered When Testing Nanomaterials for Genotoxicity with the Comet Assay.” Mutagenesis 30: 85–88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansson, C., P. Møller, L. Forchhammer, S. Loft, R. W. Godschalk, S. A. Langie, S. Lumeij, et al. 2010. “An ECVAG Trial on Assessment of Oxidative Damage to DNA Measured by the Comet Assay.” Mutagenesis 25: 125–132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jugan, M. L., S. Barillet, A. Simon-Deckers, N. Herlin-Boime, S. Sauvaigo, T. Douki, and M. Carriere. 2012. “Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Exhibit Genotoxicity and Impair DNA Repair Activity in A549 Cells.” Nanotoxicology 6: 501–513.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karlsson, H. L. 2010. “The Comet Assay in Nanotoxicology Research.” Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 398: 651–666.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karlsson, H. L., P. Cronholm, J. Gustafsson, and L. MöLler. 2008. “Copper Oxide Nanoparticles Are Highly Toxic: A Comparison between Metal Oxide Nanoparticles and Carbon Nanotubes.” Chemical Research in Toxicology 21: 1726–1732.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karlsson, H. L., B. S. Di, A. R. Collins, and M. Dusinska. 2015. “Can the Comet Assay Be Used Reliably to Detect Nanoparticle-Induced Genotoxicity?” Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis 56: 82–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karlsson, H. L., J. Gustafsson, P. Cronholm, and L. Moller. 2009. “Size-Dependent Toxicity of Metal Oxide Particles – A Comparison Between Nano- and Micrometer Size.” Toxicology Letters 188: 112–118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kermanizadeh, A., D. Balharry, H. Wallin, S. Loft, and P. Møller. 2015. “Nanomaterial Translocation-the Biokinetics, Tissue Accumulation, Toxicity and Fate of Materials in Secondary Organs – A Review.” Critical Reviews in Toxicology 45: 837–872.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kermanizadeh, A., B. K. Gaiser, G. R. Hutchison, and V. Stone. 2012. “An in Vitro Liver Model–Assessing Oxidative Stress and Genotoxicity following Exposure of Hepatocytes to a Panel of Engineered Nanomaterials.” Particle and Fibre Toxicology 9: 28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kermanizadeh, A., M. L Hr, M. Roursgaard, S. Messner, P. Gunness, J. M. Kelm, P. Møller, V. Stone, and S. Loft. 2014. “Hepatic Toxicology following Single and Multiple Exposure of Engineered Nanomaterials Utilising a Novel Primary Human 3D Liver Microtissue Model.” Particle and Fibre Toxicology 11: 56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kermanizadeh, A., S. Vranic, S. Boland, K. Moreau, A. Baeza-Squiban, B. K. Gaiser, L. A. Andrzejczuk, and V. Stone. 2013. “An in Vitro Assessment of Panel of Engineered Nanomaterials Using a Human Renal Cell Line: Cytotoxicity, Pro-Inflammatory Response, Oxidative Stress and Genotoxicity.” BMC Nephrology 14: 96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, Y., J. Yan, W. Ding, Y. Chen, L. M. Pack, and T. Chen. 2017. “Genotoxicity and Gene Expression Analyses of Liver and Lung Tissues of Mice Treated with Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles.” Mutagenesis 32: 33–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magdolenova, Z., D. Bilanicova, G. Pojana, L. M. Fjellsbo, A. Hudecova, K. Hasplova, A. Marcomini, and M. Dusinska. 2012. “Impact of Agglomeration and Different Dispersions of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles on the Human Related in Vitro Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity.” Journal of Environmental Monitoring 14: 455–464.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magdolenova, Z., A. Collins, A. Kumar, A. Dhawan, V. Stone, and M. Dusinska. 2014. “Mechanisms of Genotoxicity. A Review of in Vitro and in Vivo Studies with Engineered Nanoparticles.” Nanotoxicology 8: 233–278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manikandan, S. 2010. “Data Transformation.” Journal of Pharmacology & Pharmacotherapeutics 1: 126–127.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marucco, A., E. Gazzano, D. Ghigo, E. Enrico, and I. Fenoglio. 2016. “Fibrinogen Enhances the Inflammatory Response of Alveolar Macrophages to TiO2, SiO2 and Carbon Nanomaterials.” Nanotoxicology 10: 1–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Møller, P. 2006. “Assessment of Reference Values for DNA Damage Detected by the Comet Assay in human blood cell DNA.” Mutation Research 612: 84–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Møller, P., P. H. Danielsen, K. Jantzen, M. Roursgaard, and S. Loft. 2013. “Oxidatively Damaged DNA in Animals Exposed to Particles.” Critical Reviews in Toxicology 43: 96–118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Møller, P., J. G. Hemmingsen, D. M. Jensen, P. H. Danielsen, D. G. Karottki, K. Jantzen, M. Roursgaard, et al. 2015a. “Applications of the Comet Assay in Particle Toxicology: Air Pollution and Engineered Nanomaterials Exposure.” Mutagenesis 30: 67–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Møller, P., N. R. Jacobsen, J. K. Folkmann, P. H. Danielsen, L. Mikkelsen, J. G. Hemmingsen, L. K. Vesterdal, L. Forchhammer, H. Wallin, and S. Loft. 2010a. “Role of Oxidative Damage in Toxicity of Particulates.” Free Radical Research 44: 1–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Møller, P., K. Jantzen, M. Løhr, M. H. G. Andersen, D. M. Jensen, M. Roursgaard, P. H. Danielsen, A. Jensen, and S. Loft. 2017. “Searching for Assay Controls for the Fpg- and hOGG1-Modified Comet Assay.” Mutagenesis. doi: 10.1093/mutage/gex015. [Epub ahead of print]
   Google Scholar
• Møller, P., D. M. Jensen, D. V. Christophersen, A. Kermanizadeh, N. R. Jacobsen, J. G. Hemmingsen, P. H. Danielsen, et al. 2015b. “Measurement of Oxidative Damage to DNA in Nanomaterial Exposed Cells and Animals.” Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis 56: 97–110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Møller, P., L. Möller, R. W. Godschalk, and G. D. Jones. 2010b. “Assessment and Reduction of Comet Assay Variation in Relation to DNA Damage: Studies from the European Comet Assay Validation Group.” Mutagenesis 25: 109–111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Møller, P., L. Risom, C. Lundby, L. Mikkelsen, and S. Loft. 2008. “Hypoxia and Oxidation Levels of DNA and Lipids in Humans and Animal Experimental Models.” IUBMB Life 60: 707–723.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakagawa, Y., S. Wakuri, K. Sakamoto, and N. Tanaka. 1997. “The Photogenotoxicity of Titanium Dioxide Particles.” Mutation Research 394: 125–132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, B. C., C. W. Wright, Y. Ibuki, M. Moreno-Villanueva, H. L. Karlsson, G. Hendriks, C. M. Sims, N. Singh, and S. H. Doak. 2017. “Emerging Metrology for High-Throughput Nanomaterial Genotoxicology.” Mutagenesis 32: 215–232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OECD 2016. OECD guideline for the testing of chemicals. In vivo mammalian alkaline comet assay. OECD Guideline test 489. Paris: OECD.
   Google Scholar
• Petkovic, J., T. Kuzma, K. Rade, S. Novak, and M. Filipic. 2011a. “Pre-Irradiation of Anatase TiO2 Particles with UV Enhances Their Cytotoxic and Genotoxic Potential in Human Hepatoma HepG2 Cells.” Journal of Hazardous Materials 196: 145–152.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petkovic, J., B. Zegura, M. Stevanovic, N. Drnovsek, D. Uskokovic, S. Novak, and M. Filipic. 2011b. “DNA Damage and Alterations in Expression of DNA Damage Responsive Genes Induced by TiO2 Nanoparticles in Human Hepatoma HepG2 Cells.” Nanotoxicology 5: 341–353.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proquin, H., C. Rodriguez-Ibarra, C. G. Moonen, I. M. Urrutia Ortega, J. J. Briede, T. M. de Kok, L. H. van, and Y. I. Chirino. 2017. “Titanium Dioxide Food Additive (E171) Induces ROS Formation and Genotoxicity: Contribution of Micro and Nano-Sized Fractions.” Mutagenesis 32: 139–149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider, T., M. Westermann, and M. Glei. 2017. “In Vitro Uptake and Toxicity Studies of Metal Nanoparticles and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles in Human HT29 Cells.” Archives of Toxicology 91: 3517–3527.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shukla, R. K., V. Sharma, A. K. Pandey, S. Singh, S. Sultana, and A. Dhawan. 2011. “ROS-Mediated Genotoxicity Induced by Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles in Human Epidermal Cells.” Toxicology In Vitro 25: 231–241.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shukla, R. K., A. Kumar, D. Gurbani, A. K. Pandey, S. Singh, and A. Dhawan. 2013. “TiO2 Nanoparticles Induce Oxidative DNA Damage and Apoptosis in Human Liver Cells.” Nanotoxicology 7: 48–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shukla, R. K., A. Kumar, N. V. Vallabani, A. K. Pandey, and A. Dhawan. 2014. “Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticle-Induced Oxidative Stress Triggers DNA Damage and Hepatic Injury in Mice.” Nanomedicine (London) 9: 1423–1434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, C. C., M. R. O’Donovan, and E. A. Martin. 2006. “hOGG1 Recognizes Oxidative Damage Using the Comet Assay with Greater Specificity than FPG or ENDOIII.” Mutagenesis 21: 185–190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song, M. F., Y. S. Li, H. Kasai, and K. Kawai. 2012. “Metal Nanoparticle-Induced Micronuclei and Oxidative DNA Damage in Mice.” Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition 50: 211–216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoccoro, A., B. S. Di, F. Coppede, J. Ponti, C. Uboldi, M. Blosi, C. Delpivo, S. Ortelli, A. L. Costa, and L. Migliore. 2017. “Multiple Endpoints to Evaluate Pristine and Remediated Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Genotoxicity in Lung Epithelial A549 Cells.” Toxicology Letters 276: 48–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoccoro, A., B. S. Di, C. Uboldi, F. Coppede, J. Ponti, C. Placidi, M. Blosi, S. Ortelli, A. L. Costa, and L. Migliore. 2016. “A Panel of in Vitro Tests to Evaluate Genotoxic and Morphological Neoplastic Transformation Potential on Balb/3T3 Cells by Pristine and Remediated Titania and Zirconia Nanoparticles.” Mutagenesis 31: 511–529.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trouiller, B., R. Reliene, A. Westbrook, P. Solaimani, and R. H. Schiestl. 2009. “Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Induce DNA Damage and Genetic Instability in Vivo in Mice.” Cancer Research 69: 8784–8789.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ursini, C. L., D. Cavallo, A. M. Fresegna, A. Ciervo, R. Maiello, P. Tassone, G. Buresti, S. Casciardi, and S. Iavicoli. 2014. “Evaluation of Cytotoxic, Genotoxic and Inflammatory Response in Human Alveolar and Bronchial Epithelial Cells Exposed to Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles.” Journal of Applied Toxicology 34: 1209–1219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valdiglesias, V., C. Costa, V. Sharma, G. Kilic, E. Pasaro, J. P. Teixeira, A. Dhawan, and B. Laffon. 2013. “Comparative Study on Effects of Two Different Types of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles on Human Neuronal Cells.” Food and Chemical Toxicology 57: 352–361.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vales, G., L. Rubio, and R. Marcos. 2015. “Long-Term Exposures to Low Doses of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Induce Cell Transformation, but Not Genotoxic Damage in BEAS-2B Cells.” Nanotoxicology 9: 568–578.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weir, A., P. Westerhoff, L. Fabricius, K. Hristovski, and N. von Goetz. 2012. “Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles in Food and Personal Care Products.” Environmental Science & Technology 46: 2242–2250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitwell, H., R. M. Mackay, C. Elgy, C. Morgan, M. Griffiths, H. Clark, P. Skipp, and J. Madsen. 2016. “Nanoparticles in the Lung and Their Protein Corona: The Few Proteins That Count.” Nanotoxicology 10: 1385–1394.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodruff, R. S., Y. Li, J. Yan, M. Bishop, M. Y. Jones, F. Watanabe, A. S. Biris, P. Rice, T. Zhou, and T. Chen. 2012. “Genotoxicity Evaluation of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Using the Ames Test and Comet Assay.” Journal of Applied Toxicology 32: 934–943.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, Y., K. Doudrick, X. Bi, K. Hristovski, P. Herckes, P. Westerhoff, and R. Kaegi. 2014. “Characterization of Food-Grade Titanium Dioxide: The Presence of Nanosized Particles.” Environmental Science & Technology 48: 6391–6400.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zijno, A., I. De Angelis, B. De Berardis, C. Andreoli, M. T. Russo, D. Pietraforte, G. Scorza, et al. 2015. “Different Mechanisms Are Involved in Oxidative DNA Damage and Genotoxicity Induction by ZnO and TiO2 Nanoparticles in Human Colon Carcinoma Cells.” Toxicology In Vitro 29: 1503–1512.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar