243
Views
4
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

A current perspective into young female sex hormone replacement: a review

ORCID Icon &

References

  • Rothman MS, Wierman ME. Female hypogonadism: evaluation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian axis. Pituitary. 2008;11(2):163–169.
  • Sassarini J, Lumsden MA, Critchley HO. Sex hormone replacement in ovarian failure–new treatment concepts. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015;29(1):105–114.
  • Bulun SE. Physiology and pathology of the female reproductive axis. In: Melmed S, Auchus RJ, Goldfine AB, et al., editors. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. 14 ed. Philadelphia:Elsevier; 2020. p.622–623.
  • Conway GS. Premature ovarian failure. Br Med Bull. 2000;56(3):643–649.
  • Vujovic S, Brincat M, Erel T, et al. EMAS position statement: managing women with premature ovarian failure. Maturitas. 2010;67(1):91–93.
  • Webber L, Davies M, Anderson R, et al. ESHRE Guideline: management of women with premature ovarian insufficiency. Hum Reprod. 2016;31(5):926–937.
  • Rossouw JE, Writing Group for the Women’s Health Initiative Investigators. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002;288:321–333.
  • Lobo RA. Hormone-replacement therapy: current thinking. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2017; 13 (4):220–231.
  • Anderson GL, Limacher M, Assaf AR, et al. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291:1701–1712.
  • Anderson GL, Chlebowski RT, Aragaki AK, et al. Conjugated equine oestrogen and breast cancer incidence and mortality in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: extended follow-up of the Women’s Health Initiative randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Oncol. 2012;13(5):476–486.
  • Manson JE, Chlebowski RT, Stefanick ML, et al. Menopausal hormone therapy and health outcomes during the intervention and extended poststopping phases of the Women’s Health Initiative randomized trials. JAMA. 2013;310(13):1353–1368.
  • Rossouw JE, Prentice RL, Manson JE, et al. Postmenopausal hormone therapy and risk of cardiovascular disease by age and years since menopause. JAMA. 2007;297(13):1465–1477.
  • Hodis HN, Mack WJ, Henderson VW, et al. Vascular effects of early versus late postmenopausal treatment with estradiol. N Engl J Med. 2016;374(13):1221–1231.
  • Miller VM, Naftolin F, Asthana S, et al. The Kronos early estrogen prevention study (KEEPS): what have we learned? Menopause. 2019;26(9):1071–1084.
  • Sullivan SD, Sarrel PM, Nelson LM. Hormone replacement therapy in young women with primary ovarian insufficiency and early menopause. Fertil Steril. 2016;106(7):1588–1599.
  • Faubion SS, Kuhle CL, Shuster LT, et al. Long-term health consequences of premature or early menopause and considerations for management. Climacteric. 2015;18(4):483–491.
  • Muka T, Oliver-Williams C, Kunutsor S, et al. Association of age at onset of menopause and time since onset of menopause with cardiovascular outcomes, intermediate vascular traits, and all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Cardiol. 2016;1(7):767–776.
  • Tao XY, Zuo AZ, Wang JQ, et al. Effect of primary ovarian insufficiency and early natural menopause on mortality: a meta-analysis. Climacteric. 2016;19(1):27–36.
  • Wu X, Cai H, Kallianpur A, et al. Age at menarche and natural menopause and number of reproductive years in association with mortality: results from a median follow-up of 11.2 years among 31,955 naturally menopausal Chinese women. PloS One. 2014;9(8):e103673.
  • Hong JS, Yi SW, Kang HC, et al. Age at menopause and cause-specific mortality in South Korean women: kangwha Cohort Study. Maturitas. 2007;56(4):411–419.
  • Amagai Y, Ishikawa S, Gotoh T, et al. Age at menopause and mortality in Japan: the Jichi Medical School cohort study. J Epidemiol. 2006;16(4):161–166.
  • Ossewaarde ME, Bots ML, Verbeek AL, et al. Age at menopause, cause-specific mortality and total life expectancy. Epidemiology. 2005;16(4):556–562.
  • Kannel WB, Hjortland MC, McNamara PM, et al. Menopause and risk of cardiovascular disease: the Framingham study. Ann Intern Med. 1976;85(4):447–452.
  • Scarborough PA, Bhatnagar P, Wickramasinghe K, et al. Coronary heart disease statistics 2010 edition. British Health Foundation Health Promotion research group, Department of Public Health, University of Oxford. 2010 Nov 27.
  • Lobo RA. Surgical menopause and cardiovascular risks. Menopause. 2007;14(3):562–566.
  • Løkkegaard E, Jovanovic Z, Heitmann BL, et al. The association between early menopause and risk of ischaemic heart disease: influence of hormone therapy. Maturitas. 2006 20;53(2):226–233.
  • Yorgun H, Tokgözoğlu L, Canpolat U, et al. The cardiovascular effects of premature ovarian failure. Int J Cardiol. 2013;168(1):506–510.
  • Matthews KA, Crawford SL, Chae CU, et al. Are changes in cardiovascular disease risk factors in midlife women due to chronological aging or to the menopausal transition? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54(25):2366–2373.
  • Joakimsen O, Bønaa KH, Stensland-Bugge E, et al. Population-based study of age at menopause and ultrasound assessed carotid atherosclerosis: the Tromsø Study. J Clin Epidemiol. 2000;53(5):525–530.
  • Elsheikh M, Bird R, Casadei B, et al. The effect of hormone replacement therapy on cardiovascular hemodynamics in women with Turner’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85(2):614–618.
  • Kalantaridou SN, Naka KK, Bechlioulis A, et al. Premature ovarian failure, endothelial dysfunction and estrogen–progestogen replacement. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2006;17(3):101–109.
  • Freriks K, Timmermans J, Beerendonk CC, et al. Standardized multidisciplinary evaluation yields significant previously undiagnosed morbidity in adult women with Turner syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(9):E1517–E1526.
  • Bachelot A, Rouxel A, Massin N, et al. Phenotyping and genetic studies of 357 consecutive patients presenting with premature ovarian failure. Eur J Endocrinol. 2009;161(1):179–187.
  • Popat VB, Calis KA, Vanderhoof VH, et al. Bone mineral density in estrogen-deficient young women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94(7):2277–2283.
  • Han TS, Goswami D, Trikudanathan S, et al. Comparison of bone mineral density and body proportions between women with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome and women with gonadal dysgenesis. Eur J Endocrinol. 2008;159(2):179–186.
  • Gallagher JC. Effect of early menopause on bone mineral density and fractures. Menopause. 2007;14(3):567–571.
  • van Der Voort DJ, van Der Weijer PH, Barentsen R. Early menopause: increased fracture risk at older age. Osteoporos Int. 2003;14(6):525–530.
  • Bakalov VK, Axelrod L, Baron J, et al. Selective reduction in cortical bone mineral density in turner syndrome independent of ovarian hormone deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(12):5717–5722.
  • Conway GS, Kaltsas G, Patel A, et al. Characterization of idiopathic premature ovarian failure. Fertil Steril. 1996;65(2):337–341.
  • Nelson LM. Primary ovarian insufficiency. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(6):606–614.
  • Ohta H, Sugimoto I, Masuda A, et al. Decreased bone mineral density associated with early menopause progresses for at least ten years: cross-sectional comparisons between early and normal menopausal women. Bone. 1996;18(3):227–231.
  • Bours SP, van Geel TA, Geusens PP, et al. Contributors to secondary osteoporosis and metabolic bone diseases in patients presenting with a clinical fracture. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(5):1360–1367.
  • Challoumas D, Cobbold C, Dimitrakakis G. Effects of calcium intake on the cardiovascular system in postmenopausal women. Atherosclerosis. 2013;231(1):1–7.
  • Kanis JA, McCloskey EV, Johansson H, et al. European guidance for the diagnosis and management of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int. 2013;24(1):23–57.
  • Crofton PM, Evans N, Bath LE, et al. Physiological versus standard sex steroid replacement in young women with premature ovarian failure: effects on bone mass acquisition and turnover. Clin Endocrinol. 2010;73(6):707–714.
  • Prior JC, Vigna YM, Wark JD, et al. Premenopausal ovariectomy‐related bone loss: a randomized, double‐blind, one‐year trial of conjugated estrogen or medroxyprogesterone acetate. J Bone Miner Res. 1997;12(11):1851–1863.
  • Lindsay RD, Hart DM, Forrest C, et al. Prevention of spinal osteoporosis in oophorectomised women. Lancet. 1980;316(8205):1151–1154.
  • Morrison JH, Brinton RD, Schmidt PJ, et al. Estrogen, menopause, and the aging brain: how basic neuroscience can inform hormone therapy in women. J Neurosci. 2006;26(41):10332–10348.
  • Maki PM, Resnick SM. Effects of estrogen on patterns of brain activity at rest and during cognitive activity: a review of neuroimaging studies. Neuroimage. 2001;14(4):789–801.
  • Rivera CM, Grossardt BR, Rhodes DJ, et al. Increased cardiovascular mortality following early bilateral oophorectomy. Menopause. 2009;16(1):15.
  • Rocca WA, Grossardt BR, De Andrade M, et al. Survival patterns after oophorectomy in premenopausal women: a population-based cohort study. Lancet Oncol. 2006;7(10):821–828.
  • Mann E, Singer D, Pitkin J, et al. Psychosocial adjustment in women with premature menopause: a cross-sectional survey. Climacteric. 2012 Oct 1;15(5):481–489.
  • Liao KL, Wood N, Conway GS. Premature menopause and psychological well-being. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol. 2000;21(3):167–174.
  • Smith JA, Vitale S, Reed GF, et al. Dry eye signs and symptoms in women with premature ovarian failure. Arch Ophthalmol. 2004;122(2):151–156.
  • Cartwright B, Robinson J, Seed PT, et al. Hormone replacement therapy versus the combined oral contraceptive pill in premature ovarian failure: a randomized controlled trial of the effects on bone mineral density. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016;101(9):3497–3505.
  • Langrish JP, Mills NL, Bath LE, et al. Cardiovascular effects of physiological and standard sex steroid replacement regimens in premature ovarian failure. Hypertension. 2009;53(5):805–811.
  • Mohammed K, Abu Dabrh AM, Benkhadra K, et al. Oral vs transdermal estrogen therapy and vascular events: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015;100(11):4012–4020.
  • Scarabin PY, Oger E, Plu-Bureau G. Differential association of oral and transdermal oestrogen-replacement therapy with venous thromboembolism risk. Lancet. 2003;362(9382):428–432.
  • Canonico M, Plu-Bureau G, Lowe GD, et al. Hormone replacement therapy and risk of venous thromboembolism in postmenopausal women: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2008;336(7655):1227–1231.
  • Hemelaar M, van der Mooren MJ, Rad M, et al. Effects of non-oral postmenopausal hormone therapy on markers of cardiovascular risk: a systematic review. Fertil Steril. 2008;90(3):642–672.
  • Renoux C, Dell’Aniello S, Garbe E, et al. Transdermal and oral hormone replacement therapy and the risk of stroke: a nested case-control study. BMJ. 2010;340:c2519.
  • Hugon-Rodin J, Gompel A, Plu-Bureau G. Mechanisms in endocrinology: epidemiology of hormonal contraceptives-related venous thromboembolism. Eur J Endocrinol. 2014;171(6):R221–R230.
  • Sitruk-Ware R, Nath A. Characteristics and metabolic effects of estrogen and progestins contained in oral contraceptive pills. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;27(1):13–24.
  • Kuhl H. Pharmacology of estrogens and progestogens: influence of different routes of administration. Climacteric. 2005;8(sup1):3–63.
  • Kuhnz W, Gansau C, Mahler M. Pharmacokinetics of estradiol, free and total estrone, in young women following single intravenous and oral administration of 17 beta-estradiol. Arzneimittelforschung. 1993;43(9):966–973.
  • Kuhnz W, Blode H, Zimmermann H. Pharmacokinetics of exogenous natural and synthetic estrogens and antiestrogens. In: Oettel M, Schillinger E, editors. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, Estrogens and Antiestrogens II. Berlin: Springer Verlag; 1999. p. 261–322.
  • Ruggiero RJ, Likis FE. Estrogen: physiology, pharmacology, and formulations for replacement therapy. J Midwifery Womens Health. 2002;47(3):130–138.
  • Düsterberg B, Nishino Y. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacological features of oestradiol valerate. Maturitas. 1982;4(4):315–324.
  • Zeun S, Lu M, Uddin A. et al. Pharmacokinetics of an oral contraceptive containing oestradiol valerate and dienogest. Eur J Contracep Repr. 2009;14(3):221–232.
  • Canonico M, Oger E, Plu-Bureau G, et al. Estrogen and Thromboembolism Risk (ESTHER) Study Group. Hormone therapy and venous thromboembolism among postmenopausal women: impact of the route of estrogen administration and progestogens: the ESTHER study. Circulation. 2007;115(7):840–845.
  • Vinogradova Y, Coupland C, Hippisley-Cox J. Use of hormone replacement therapy and risk of venous thromboembolism: nested case-control studies using the QResearch and CPRD databases. BMJ. 2019;364:k4810.
  • O’donnell R, Warner P, Lee RJ, et al. Physiological sex steroid replacement in premature ovarian failure: randomized crossover trial of effect on uterine volume, endometrial thickness and blood flow, compared with a standard regimen. Hum Reprod. 2012;27(4):1130–1138.
  • Roberts H, Hickey M, Lethaby A. Hormone therapy in postmenopausal women and risk of endometrial hyperplasia: A Cochrane review summary. Maturitas. 2014;77(1):4–6.
  • Schnatz PF. The 2017 hormone therapy position statement of The North American Menopause Society. Menopause. 2017;24(7):728–753.
  • Asi N, Mohammed K, Haydour Q, et al. Progesterone vs. synthetic progestins and the risk of breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Syst Rev. 2016;5(1):121.
  • Bińkowska M, Woroń J. Progestogens in menopausal hormone therapy. Menopause Rev. 2015;14(2):134–143.
  • Nahoul K, Dehennin L, Scholler R. Radioimmunoassay of plasma progesterone after oral administration of micronized progesterone. J Steroid Biochem. 1987;26(2):241–249.
  • Mirkin S, Amadio JM, Bernick BA, et al. 17β-Estradiol and natural progesterone for menopausal hormone therapy: REPLENISH phase 3 study design of a combination capsule and evidence review. Maturitas. 2015;81(1):28–35.
  • Mittal M, Savvas M, Arya R, et al. A randomised controlled trial comparing the effects of micronized progesterone to medroxyprogesterone acetate on cardiovascular health, lipid metabolism and the coagulation cascade in women with premature ovarian insufficiency: study protocol and review of the literature. Menopause Int. 2013;19(3):127–132.
  • Mueck A. Postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy and cardiovascular disease: the value of transdermal estradiol and micronized progesterone. Climacteric. 2012;15(1):11–17.
  • Fitzpatrick LA, Pace C, Wiita B. Comparison of regimens containing oral micronized progesterone or medroxyprogesterone acetate on quality of life in postmenopausal women: a cross-sectional survey. J Womens Health Gend Based Med. 2000;9(4):381–387.
  • Harman SM, Black DM, Naftolin F, et al. Arterial imaging outcomes and cardiovascular risk factors in recently menopausal women: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2014;161(4):249–260.
  • Stute P, Neulen J, Wildt L. The impact of micronized progesterone on the endometrium: a systematic review. Climacteric. 2016;19(4):316–328.
  • Stanczyk FZ. Treatment of postmenopausal women with topical progesterone creams and gels: are they effective? Climacteric. 2014;17(sup2):8–11.
  • Elshafie MA, Ewies AA. Transdermal natural progesterone cream for postmenopausal women: inconsistent data and complex pharmacokinetics. J Obstetrics Gynaecol. 2007;27(7):655–659.
  • Wildemeersch D, Andrade A, Goldstuck N. Femilis® 60 Levonorgestrel-Releasing Intrauterine System–A Review of 10 Years of Clinical Experience. Clin Med Insights Reprod Health. 2016;10:19–27.
  • Wildemeersch D, Janssens D, Weyers S. Continuous combined parenteral estrogen substitution and intrauterine progestogen delivery: the ideal HST combination? Maturitas. 2005;51(2):207–214.
  • Wildemeersch D. Why perimenopausal women should consider to use a levonorgestrel intrauterine system. Gynecological Endocrinol. 2016;32(8):659–661.
  • Mueck AO, Seeger H, Bühling KJ. Use of dydrogesterone in hormone replacement therapy. Maturitas. 2009;65:S51–S60.
  • Popat VB, Calis KA, Kalantaridou SN, et al. Bone mineral density in young women with primary ovarian insufficiency: results of a three-year randomized controlled trial of physiological transdermal estradiol and testosterone replacement. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014;99(9):3418–3426.
  • Gibbons WE, Moyer DL, Lobo RA, et al. Biochemical and histologic effects of sequential estrogen/progestin therapy on the endometrium of postmenopausal women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1986;154(2):456–461.
  • Sitruk-Ware R, Nath A. The use of newer progestins for contraception. Contraception. 2010;82(5):410–417.
  • Stanczyk FZ, Roy S. Metabolism of levonorgestrel, norethindrone, and structurally related contraceptive steroids. Contraception. 1990;42(1):67–96.
  • Klehr-Bathmann I, Kuhl H. Formation of ethinylestradiol in postmenopausal women during continuous treatment with a combination of estradiol, estriol and norethisterone acetate. Maturitas. 1995;21(3):245–250.
  • Reed MJ, Ross MS, Lai LC, et al. In vivo conversion of norethisterone to ethynyloestradiol in perimenopausal women. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1990;37(2):301–303.
  • Sitruk-Ware R. New hormonal therapies and regimens in the postmenopause: routes of administration and timing of initiation. Climacteric. 2007;10(5):358–370.
  • Sturdee DW, Van de Weijer P, von Holst T. Endometrial safety of a transdermal sequential estradiol–levonorgestrel combination. Climacteric. 2002;5(2):170–177.
  • Wiseman LR, McTavish D. Transdermal estradiol/norethisterone. Drugs Aging. 1994;4(3):238–256.
  • Lindgren R, Risberg B, Hammar M, et al. Endometrial effects of transdermal estradiol/norethisterone acetate. Maturitas. 1992;15(1):71–78.
  • Plu-Bureau G, Maitrot-Mantelet L, Hugon-Rodin J, et al. Hormonal contraceptives and venous thromboembolism: an epidemiological update. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;27(1):25–34.
  • Stegeman BH, de Bastos M, Rosendaal FR, et al. Different combined oral contraceptives and the risk of venous thrombosis: systematic review and network meta-analysis. BMJ. 2013;347:f5298.
  • Krattenmacher R. Drospirenone: pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of a unique progestogen. Contraception. 2000;62(1):29–38.
  • Gerlinger C, Heithecker R. The effect of 2 combined oral Contraceptives containing either drospirenone or cyproterone acetate on acne and seborrhea. Cutis. 2002;69(4 Suppl):2–15.
  • Poulter NR, Chang CL, Farley TM, et al. Contraceptives: results of international multicentre case-control study. Lancet. 1995;346:1575–1582.
  • Spitzer WO, Lewis MA, Heinemann LA, et al. Third generation oral contraceptives and risk of venous thromboembolic disorders: an international case-control study. BMJ. 1996;312(7023):83–88.
  • Lidegaard Ø, Nielsen LH, Skovlund CW, et al. Risk of venous thromboembolism from use of oral contraceptives containing different progestogens and oestrogen doses: danish cohort study, 2001-9. BMJ. 2011;343:d6423.
  • Tepper NK, Whiteman MK, Marchbanks PA, et al. Progestin-only contraception and thromboembolism: a systematic review. Contraception. 2016;94(6):678–700.
  • Fruzzetti F, Cagnacci A. Venous thrombosis and hormonal contraception: what’s new with estradiol-based hormonal contraceptives? Open Access J Contracept. 2018;9:75–79.
  • Heinemann K, Franke C, Moehner S, et al. Cardiovascular safety in users of different combined oral contraceptives–Final results from the INAS-SCORE study. Eur J Contracep Repr. 2018;23:40.
  • Abraham GE. Ovarian and adrenal contribution to peripheral androgens during the menstrual cycle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1974;39(2):340–346.
  • Panay N, Al-Azzawi F, Bouchard C, et al. Testosterone treatment of HSDD in naturally menopausal women: the ADORE study. Climacteric. 2010;13(2):121–131.
  • Tamimi RM, Hankinson SE, Chen WY, et al. Combined estrogen and testosterone use and risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(14):1483–1489.
  • Simon J, Braunstein G, Nachtigall L, et al. Testosterone patch increases sexual activity and desire in surgically menopausal women with hypoactive sexual desire disorder. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90(9):5226–5233.
  • Zuckerman-Levin N, Frolova-Bishara T, Militianu D, et al. Androgen replacement therapy in Turner syndrome: a pilot study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94(12):4820–4827.
  • van Noord PA, Dubas JS, Dorland M, et al. Age at natural menopause in a population-based screening cohort: the role of menarche, fecundity, and lifestyle factors. Fertil Steril. 1997;68(1):95–102.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.