A review of drug-drug interactions in older HIV-infected patients

References

• Samji H, Cescon A, Hogg RS, et al. Closing the gap: increases in life expectancy among treated HIV-positive individuals in the United States and Canada. PloS One. 2013;8(12):e81355. PubMed PMID: 24367482; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3867319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smit M, Brinkman K, Geerlings S, et al. Future challenges for clinical care of an ageing population infected with HIV: a modelling study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015 Jul;15(7):810–818. PubMed PMID: 26070969; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4528076.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection among adults aged 50 years and older in the United States and dependent areas, 2010–2014. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report; 2016 [cited 2017 May 14]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/library/reports/surveillance/
   Google Scholar
• Wada N, Jacobson LP, Cohen M, et al. Cause-specific mortality among HIV-infected individuals, by CD4(+) cell count at HAART initiation, compared with HIV-uninfected individuals. AIDS. 2014 Jan 14;28(2):257–265. PubMed PMID: 24105030; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4164055.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah S, McGowan J, Smith C, et al. Comorbid conditions, treatment, and health maintenance in older persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection in New York City. Clin Infect Dis. 2002 Nov 15;35(10):1238–1243. PubMed PMID: 12410484.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2013: with special feature on prescription drugs. Hyattsville (MD): Health, United States; 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Bushardt RL, Massey EB, Simpson TW, et al. Polypharmacy: misleading, but manageable. Clin Interv Aging. 2008;3(2):383–389. PubMed PMID: 18686760; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2546482.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene M, Steinman MA, McNicholl IR, et al. Polypharmacy, drug-drug interactions, and potentially inappropriate medications in older adults with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2014 Mar;62(3):447–453. PubMed PMID: 24576251; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4043391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berenbeim DM. Polypharmacy: overdosing on good intentions. Manag Care Q. 2002;10(3):1–5. PubMed PMID: 12476658.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shenoy P, Harugeri A. Elderly patients’ participation in clinical trials. Perspect Clin Res. 2015 Oct–Dec;6(4):184–189. PubMed PMID: 26623388; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4640010.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bavinger C, Bendavid E, Niehaus K, et al. Risk of cardiovascular disease from antiretroviral therapy for HIV: a systematic review. PloS One. 2013;8(3):e59551. PubMed PMID: 23555704; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3608726.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Llibre JM, Hill A. Abacavir and cardiovascular disease: a critical look at the data. Antiviral Res. 2016 Aug;132:116–121. PubMed PMID: 27260856.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcus JL, Neugebauer RS, Leyden WA, et al. Use of abacavir and risk of cardiovascular disease among HIV-infected individuals. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016 Apr 1;71(4):413–419. PubMed PMID: 26536316.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhew DC, Bernal M, Aguilar D, et al. Association between protease inhibitor use and increased cardiovascular risk in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: a systematic review. Clin Infect Dis. 2003 Oct 1;37(7):959–972. PubMed PMID: 13130409.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Worm SW, Sabin C, Weber R, et al. Risk of myocardial infarction in patients with HIV infection exposed to specific individual antiretroviral drugs from the 3 major drug classes: the data collection on adverse events of anti-HIV drugs (D:A:D) study. J Infect Dis. 2010 Feb 1;201(3):318–330. PubMed PMID: 20039804.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scherzer R, Estrella M, Li Y, et al. Association of tenofovir exposure with kidney disease risk in HIV infection. AIDS. 2012 Apr 24;26(7):867–875. PubMed PMID: 22313955; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3736566.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodward CL, Hall AM, Williams IG, et al. Tenofovir-associated renal and bone toxicity. HIV Med. 2009 Sep;10(8):482–487. PubMed PMID: 19459988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nunez M. Hepatotoxicity of antiretrovirals: incidence, mechanisms and management. J Hepatol. 2006;44(1Suppl):S132–S139. PubMed PMID: 16364487.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Silverberg MJ, Leyden W, Horberg MA, et al. Older age and the response to and tolerability of antiretroviral therapy. Arch Intern Med. 2007 Apr 9;167(7):684–691. PubMed PMID: 17420427.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hellinger FJ, Encinosa WE. Inappropriate drug combinations among privately insured patients with HIV disease. Med Care. 2005 Sep;43(9Suppl):III53–62. PubMed PMID: 16116309.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holtzman C, Armon C, Tedaldi E, et al. Polypharmacy and risk of antiretroviral drug interactions among the aging HIV-infected population. J Gen Intern Med. 2013 Oct;28(10):1302–1310. PubMed PMID: 23605401; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3785656.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller CD, El-Kholi R, Faragon JJ, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for clinically significant drug interactions with antiretroviral therapy. Pharmacotherapy. 2007 Oct;27(10):1379–1386. PubMed PMID: 17896893.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah S, McGowan J, Opulski B, et al. Identification of drug interactions involving ART in New York City HIV specialty clinics. Program and abstracts of the 14th conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections; 2007 Feb 25–28; Los Angeles, CA.
   Google Scholar
• Tseng A, Szadkowski L, Walmsley S, et al. Association of age with polypharmacy and risk of drug interactions with antiretroviral medications in HIV-positive patients. Ann Pharmacother. 2013 Nov;47(11):1429–1439. PubMed PMID: 24285760.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeLorenze GN, Follansbee SF, Nguyen DP, et al. Medication error in the care of HIV/AIDS patients: electronic surveillance, confirmation, and adverse events. Med Care. 2005 Sep;43(9Suppl):III63–8. PubMed PMID: 16116310.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pelkonen O, Turpeinen M, Hakkola J, et al. Inhibition and induction of human cytochrome P450 enzymes: current status. Arch Toxicol. 2008 Oct;82(10):667–715. PubMed PMID: 18618097.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guillemette C. Pharmacogenomics of human UDP-glucuronosyltransferase enzymes. Pharmacogen J. 2003;3(3):136–158. PubMed PMID: 12815363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiang TK, Ensom MH, Chang TK. UDP-glucuronosyltransferases and clinical drug-drug interactions. Pharmacol Ther. 2005 Apr;106(1):97–132. PubMed PMID: 15781124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dooley KE, Sayre P, Borland J, et al. Safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of the HIV integrase inhibitor dolutegravir given twice daily with rifampin or once daily with rifabutin: results of a phase 1 study among healthy subjects. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013 Jan 1;62(1):21–27. PubMed PMID: 23075918.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kassahun K, McIntosh I, Cui D, et al. Metabolism and disposition in humans of raltegravir (MK-0518), an anti-AIDS drug targeting the human immunodeficiency virus 1 integrase enzyme. Drug Metab Dispos. 2007 Sep;35(9):1657–1663. PubMed PMID: 17591678.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reese MJ, Savina PM, Generaux GT, et al. In vitro investigations into the roles of drug transporters and metabolizing enzymes in the disposition and drug interactions of dolutegravir, a HIV integrase inhibitor. Drug Metab Dispos. 2013 Feb;41(2):353–361. PubMed PMID: 23132334.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenning LA, Hanley WD, Brainard DM, et al. Effect of rifampin, a potent inducer of drug-metabolizing enzymes, on the pharmacokinetics of raltegravir. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009 Jul;53(7):2852–2856. PubMed PMID: 19433563; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2704654.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isentress® (raltegravir) [package insert]. Whitehouse Station (NJ): Merck; 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang L, Huang S-M, Lesko LJ. Transporter-mediated drug-drug interactions. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2011 Apr;89(4):481–484. PubMed PMID: 21423238. DOI:10.1038/clpt.2010.359.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziagen® (abacavir sulfate) [package insert]. Research Triangle Park (NC): ViiV Healthcare; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Emtriva® (emtricitabine) [package insert]. Foster City (CA): Gilead Sciences, Inc; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Epivir® (lamivudine) [package insert]. Research Triangle Park (NC): ViiV Healthcare; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Descovy® (emtricitabine and tenofovir alafenamide) [package insert]. Foster City (CA): Gilead Sciences, Inc; 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Viread® (tenofovir disoproxil fumarate) [package insert]. Foster City (CA): Gilead Sciences, Inc; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Retrovir® (zidovudine) [package insert]. Research Triangle Park (NC): ViiV Healthcare; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Sustiva® (efavirenz) [package insert]. Princeton (NJ): Bristol-Myers Squibb Company; 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Intelence® (etravirine) [package insert]. Titusville (NJ): Janssen Pharmaceuticals; 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Viramune® (nevirapine) [package insert]. Ridgefield (CT): Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Edurant® (rilpivirine) [package insert]. Titusville (NJ): Janssen Pharmaceuticals; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Reyataz® (atazanavir) [package insert]. Princeton (NJ): Bristol-Myers Squibb Company; 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Prezista® (darunavir) [package insert]. Titusville (NJ): Janssen Pharmaceuticals; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Lexiva® (fosamprenavir calcium) [package insert]. Research Triangle Park (NC): ViiV Healthcare; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Crixivan® (indinavir sulfate) [package insert]. Whitehouse Station (NJ): Merck; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Kaletra® (lopinavir/ritonavir) [package insert]. North Chicago (IL): Abbott Laboratories; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Viracept® (nelfinavir mesylate) [package insert]. Research Triangle Park (NC): ViiV Healthcare; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Norvir® (ritonavir) [package insert]. North Chicago (IL): Abbott Laboratories; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Invirase® (saquinavir mesylate) [package insert]. South San Francisco (CA): Genentech; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Aptivus® (tipranavir) [package insert]. Ridgefield (CT): Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Tivicay® (dolutegravir) [package insert]. Research Triangle Park (NC): ViiV Healthcare; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Vitekta® (elvitegravir) [package insert]. Foster City (CA): Gilead Sciences; 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Fuzeon® (enfuvirtide) [package insert]. South San Francisco (CA): Genentech; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Selzentry® (maraviroc) [package insert]. Research Triangle Park (NC): ViiV Healthcare; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Tybost® (cobicistat) [package insert]. Foster City (CA): Gilead Sciences; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Iniesta-Navalon C, Franco-Miguel JJ, Gascon-Canovas JJ, et al. Identification of potential clinically significant drug interactions in HIV-infected patients: a comprehensive therapeutic approach. HIV Med. 2015 May;16(5):273–279. PubMed PMID: 25523089.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel N, Abdelsayed S, Veve M, et al. Predictors of clinically significant drug-drug interactions among patients treated with nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor-, protease inhibitor-, and raltegravir-based antiretroviral regimens. Ann Pharmacother. 2011 Mar;45(3):317–324. PubMed PMID: 21386025.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yiu P, Nguyen NN, Holodniy M. Clinically significant drug interactions in younger and older human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients receiving antiretroviral therapy. Pharmacotherapy. 2011 May;31(5):480–489. PubMed PMID: 21923429. DOI:10.1592/phco.31.5.480.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marzolini C, Gibbons S, Khoo S, et al. Cobicistat versus ritonavir boosting and differences in the drug-drug interaction profiles with co-medications. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016 Jul;71(7):1755–1758. PubMed PMID: 26945713. DOI:10.1093/jac/dkw032. .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Immunodeficiency Clinic, UHN Toronto General Hospital. Selected properties of ritonavir (monograph). [cited 2017 Apr 28]. Available from: http://hivclinic.ca/drug-information/pharmacologic-properties-of-antiretrovirals
   Google Scholar
• Renjifo B, van Wyk J, Salem AH, et al. Pharmacokinetic enhancement in HIV antiretroviral therapy: a comparison of ritonavir and cobicistat. AIDS Rev. 2015 Jan–Mar;17(1):37–46. PubMed PMID: 25586481. .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Hentig N, Haberl A. Safety of pharmacoenhancers for HIV therapy. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2012 Sep 5;5:557–568. PubMed PMID: 23121278. DOI:10.1586/ecp.12.45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foisy MM, Yakiwchuk EM, Hughes CA. Induction effects of ritonavir: implications for drug interactions. Ann Pharmacother. 2008 Jul;42(7):1048–1059. PubMed PMID: 18577765.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper RD, Wiebe N, Smith N, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis: renal safety of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2010 Sep 1;51(5):496–505. PubMed PMID: 20673002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall AM, Hendry BM, Nitsch D, et al. Tenofovir-associated kidney toxicity in HIV-infected patients: a review of the evidence. Am J Kidney Dis. 2011 May;57(5):773–780. PubMed PMID: 21435764.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang H, Lu X, Yang X, et al. The efficacy and safety of tenofovir alafenamide versus tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in antiretroviral regimens for HIV-1 therapy: meta-analysis. Medicine. 2016 Oct;95(41):e5146. PubMed PMID: 27741146; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5072973.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. Department of Health and Human Services; 2016 [cited 2017 Apr 25]. Available from: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Marzolini C, Back D, Weber R, et al. Ageing with HIV: medication use and risk for potential drug-drug interactions. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011 Sep;66(9):2107–2111. PubMed PMID: 21680580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillette MA, Shah BM, Schafer JJ, et al. Dolutegravir: a new integrase strand transfer inhibitor for the treatment of HIV - an alternative viewpoint. Pharmacotherapy. 2014 Sep;34(9):e173–174. PubMed PMID: 25182330.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glesby MJ, Aberg JA, Kendall MA, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions between indinavir plus ritonavir and calcium channel blockers. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2005 Aug;78(2):143–153. PubMed PMID: 16084849.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peyriere H, Eiden C, Macia J-C, et al. Antihypertensive drugs in patients treated with antiretrovirals. Ann Pharmacother. 2012 May;46(5):703–709. PubMed PMID: 22550277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Izzedine H, Launay-Vacher V, Deray G, et al. Nelfinavir and felodipine: a cytochrome P450 3A4-mediated drug interaction. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2004 Apr;75(4):362–363. PubMed PMID: 15060514.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puech R, Gagnieu M-C, Planus C, et al. Extreme bradycardia due to multiple drug-drug interactions in a patient with HIV post-exposure prophylaxis containing lopinavir-ritonavir. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2011 Apr;71(4):621–623. PubMed PMID: 21395657; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3080653.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Funderburg NT, Jiang Y, Debanne SM, et al. Rosuvastatin reduces vascular inflammation and T-cell and monocyte activation in HIV-infected subjects on antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015 Apr 1;68(4):396–404. PubMed PMID: 25514794; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4334694.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo J, Lu MT, Ihenachor EJ, et al. Effects of statin therapy on coronary artery plaque volume and high-risk plaque morphology in HIV-infected patients with subclinical atherosclerosis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet HIV. 2015 Feb;2(2):e52–63. PubMed PMID: 26424461; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4820828.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Evaluating the use of pitavastatin to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in HIV-infected adults (REPRIEVE). [cited 2017 Apr 25]. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02344290
   Google Scholar
• Busti AJ, Bain AM, Hall RG II, et al. Effects of atazanavir/ritonavir or fosamprenavir/ritonavir on the pharmacokinetics of rosuvastatin. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2008 Jun;51(6):605–610. PubMed PMID: 18520949.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fichtenbaum CJ, Gerber JG, Rosenkranz SL, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions between protease inhibitors and statins in HIV seronegative volunteers: ACTG Study A5047. AIDS. 2002 Mar 8;16(4):569–577. PubMed PMID: 11873000.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pham PA, la Porte CJ, Lee LS, et al. Differential effects of tipranavir plus ritonavir on atorvastatin or rosuvastatin pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009 Oct;53(10):4385–4392. PubMed PMID: 19667285; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2764168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Kanter CT, Keuter M, van der Lee MJ, et al. Rhabdomyolysis in an HIV-infected patient with impaired renal function concomitantly treated with rosuvastatin and lopinavir/ritonavir. Antivir Ther. 2011;16(3):435–437. PubMed PMID: 21555828. DOI:10.3851/IMP1747.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt GA, Hoehns JD, Purcell JL, et al. Severe rhabdomyolysis and acute renal failure secondary to concomitant use of simvastatin, amiodarone, and atazanavir. J Am Board Fam Med. 2007 Jul-Aug;20(4):411–416. PubMed PMID: 17615423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan RE, Campbell SE, Suehira K, et al. Effects of steady-state lopinavir/ritonavir on the pharmacokinetics of pitavastatin in healthy adult volunteers. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012 Jun 1;60(2):158–164. PubMed PMID: 22627182.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malvestutto CD, Ma Q, Morse GD, et al. Lack of pharmacokinetic interactions between pitavastatin and efavirenz or darunavir/ritonavir. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014 Dec 1;67(4):390–396. PubMed PMID: 25202920; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4404408.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerber JG, Rosenkranz SL, Fichtenbaum CJ, et al. Effect of efavirenz on the pharmacokinetics of simvastatin, atorvastatin, and pravastatin: results of AIDS Clinical Trials Group 5108 Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005 Jul 1;39(3):307–312. PubMed PMID: 15980690.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahman AP, Eaton SA, Nguyen ST, et al. Safety and efficacy of simvastatin for the treatment of dyslipidemia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients receiving efavirenz-based highly active antiretroviral therapy. Pharmacotherapy. 2008 Jul;28(7):913–919. PubMed PMID: 18576906.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ageno W, Gallus AS, Wittkowsky A, et al. Oral anticoagulant therapy: antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2Suppl):e44S–e88S. PubMed PMID: 22315269; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3278051.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holbrook AM, Pereira JA, Labiris R, et al. Systematic overview of warfarin and its drug and food interactions. Arch Intern Med. 2005 May 23;165(10):1095–1106. PubMed PMID: 15911722.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dionisio D, Mininni S, Bartolozzi D, et al. Need for increased dose of warfarin in HIV patients taking nevirapine. AIDS. 2001 Jan 26;15(2):277–278. PubMed PMID: 11216940.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fulco PP, Zingone MM, Higginson RT. Possible antiretroviral therapy-warfarin drug interaction. Pharmacotherapy. 2008 Jul;28(7):945–949. PubMed PMID: 18576910. DOI:10.1592/phco.28.7.945.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonora S, Lanzafame M, D’Avolio A, et al. Drug interactions between warfarin and efavirenz or lopinavir-ritonavir in clinical treatment. Clin Infect Dis. 2008 Jan 1;46(1):146–147. PubMed PMID: 18171231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liedtke MD, Rathbun RC. Warfarin-antiretroviral interactions. Ann Pharmacother. 2009 Feb;43(2):322–328. PubMed PMID: 19196837. DOI:10.1345/aph.1L497.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Good BL, Gomes DC, Fulco PP. An unexpected interaction between warfarin and cobicistat-boosted elvitegravir. AIDS. 2015 May 15;29(8):985–986. PubMed PMID: 25909832. DOI:10.1097/QAD.0000000000000630.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia D, Regan S, Crowther M, et al. Warfarin maintenance dosing patterns in clinical practice: implications for safer anticoagulation in the elderly population. Chest. 2005 Jun;127(6):2049–2056. PubMed PMID: 15947319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egan G, Hughes CA, Ackman ML. Drug interactions between antiplatelet or novel oral anticoagulant medications and antiretroviral medications. Ann Pharmacother. 2014 Jun;48(6):734–740. PubMed PMID: 24615627. DOI:10.1177/1060028014523115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates D, Dalton B, Gilmour J, et al. Venous thromboembolism due to suspected interaction between rivaroxaban and nevirapine. Can J Hosp Pharm. 2013 Mar;66(2):125–129. PubMed PMID: 23616677; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3633497.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gordon LA, Kumar P, Brooks KM, et al. Antiretroviral boosting agent cobicistat increases the pharmacokinetic exposure and anticoagulant effect of dabigatran in HIV-negative healthy volunteers. Circulation. 2016 Dec 6;134(23):1909–1911. PubMed PMID: 27920076; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5145004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hadigan C, Corcoran C, Basgoz N, et al. Metformin in the treatment of HIV lipodystrophy syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2000 Jul 26;284(4):472–477. PubMed PMID: 10904511.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Wijk JP, de Koning EJ, Cabezas MC, et al. Comparison of rosiglitazone and metformin for treating HIV lipodystrophy: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2005 Sep 6;143(5):337–346. PubMed PMID: 16144892.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aperis G, Paliouras C, Zervos A, et al. Lactic acidosis after concomitant treatment with metformin and tenofovir in a patient with HIV infection. J Ren Care. 2011 Mar;37(1):25–29. PubMed PMID: 21288314.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ortiz-Brizuela E, Perez-Patrigeon S, Recillas-Gispert C, et al. Lactic acidosis complicating metformin and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor combination therapy: a smoldering threat in the post-HAART era. Rev Invest Clin. 2015 Jul-Aug;67(4):273–274. PubMed PMID: 26426594.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Worth L, Elliott J, Anderson J, et al. A cautionary tale: fatal lactic acidosis complicating nucleoside analogue and metformin therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2003 Jul 15;37(2):315–316. PubMed PMID: 12856228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song IH, Zong J, Borland J, et al. The effect of dolutegravir on the pharmacokinetics of metformin in healthy subjects. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016 Aug 1;72(4):400–407. PubMed PMID: 26974526; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4935531.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gervasoni C, Minisci D, Clementi E, et al. How relevant is the interaction between dolutegravir and metformin in real life? J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017 May 1;75(1):e24–e26. PubMed PMID: 28114188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tornio A, Niemi M, Neuvonen PJ, et al. Drug interactions with oral antidiabetic agents: pharmacokinetic mechanisms and clinical implications. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2012 Jun;33(6):312–322. PubMed PMID: 22475684.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes CA, Tseng A, Cooper R. Managing drug interactions in HIV-infected adults with comorbid illness. Can Med Assoc J = Journal De l’association Medicale Canadienne. 2015 Jan 6;187(1):36–43. PubMed PMID: 25225224; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4284166. DOI:10.1503/cmaj.131626.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nachega JB, Hsu AJ, Uthman OA, et al. Antiretroviral therapy adherence and drug-drug interactions in the aging HIV population. AIDS. 2012 Jul 31;26(Suppl 1):S39–53. PubMed PMID: 22781176.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Trujillo JM, Nuffer WA. Impact of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors on nonglycemic outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. Pharmacotherapy. 2017 Apr;37(4):481–491. PubMed PMID: 28102030; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5412678. DOI:10.1002/phar.1903.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panel AGSBCUE. American Geriatrics Society 2015 updated Beers Criteria for potentially inappropriate medication use in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2015 Nov;63(11):2227–2246. PubMed PMID: 26446832. DOI:10.1111/jgs.13702.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenblatt DJ, Von Moltke LL, Harmatz JS, et al. Short-term exposure to low-dose ritonavir impairs clearance and enhances adverse effects of trazodone. J Clin Pharmacol. 2003 Apr;43(4):414–422. PubMed PMID: 12723462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill L, Lee KC. Pharmacotherapy considerations in patients with HIV and psychiatric disorders: focus on antidepressants and antipsychotics. Ann Pharmacother. 2013 Jan;47(1):75–89. PubMed PMID: 23341158. DOI:10.1345/aph.1R343.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Maat MM, Huitema AD, Mulder JW, et al. Drug interaction of fluvoxamine and fluoxetine with nevirapine in HIV-1-infected individuals. Clin Drug Investig. 2003;23(10):629–637. PubMed PMID: 17535078.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hesse LM, von Moltke LL, Shader RI, et al. Ritonavir, efavirenz, and nelfinavir inhibit CYP2B6 activity in vitro: potential drug interactions with bupropion. Drug Metab Dispos. 2001 Feb;29(2):100–102. PubMed PMID: 11159797.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogeland GW, Swindells S, McNabb JC, et al. Lopinavir/ritonavir reduces bupropion plasma concentrations in healthy subjects. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2007 Jan;81(1):69–75. PubMed PMID: 17186001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park J, Vousden M, Brittain C, et al. Dose-related reduction in bupropion plasma concentrations by ritonavir. J Clin Pharmacol. 2010 Oct;50(10):1180–1187. PubMed PMID: 20484617.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson SM, Maldarelli F, Natarajan V, et al. Efavirenz induces CYP2B6-mediated hydroxylation of bupropion in healthy subjects. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008 Dec 15;49(5):513–519. PubMed PMID: 18989234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aung GL, O’Brien JG, Tien PG, et al. Increased aripiprazole concentrations in an HIV-positive male concurrently taking duloxetine, darunavir, and ritonavir. Ann Pharmacother. 2010 Nov;44(11):1850–1854. PubMed PMID: 20978219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jover F, Cuadrado JM, Andreu L, et al. Reversible coma caused by risperidone-ritonavir interaction. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2002 Sep-Oct;25(5):251–253. PubMed PMID: 12410055.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly DV, Beique LC, Bowmer MI. Extrapyramidal symptoms with ritonavir/indinavir plus risperidone. Ann Pharmacother. 2002 May;36(5):827–830. PubMed PMID: 11978161. DOI:10.1345/aph.1A335.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith HS. Opioid metabolism. Mayo Clinic Proc. 2009 Jul;84(7):613–624. PubMed PMID: 19567715; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2704133. DOI:10.1016/S0025-6196(11)60750-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nieminen TH, Hagelberg NM, Saari TI, et al. Oxycodone concentrations are greatly increased by the concomitant use of ritonavir or lopinavir/ritonavir. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2010 Oct;66(10):977–985. PubMed PMID: 20697700.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke SM, Mulcahy FM, Tjia J, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions of nevirapine and methadone and guidelines for use of nevirapine to treat injection drug users. Clin Infect Dis. 2001 Nov 1;33(9):1595–1597. PubMed PMID: 11568856.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke SM, Mulcahy FM, Tjia J, et al. The pharmacokinetics of methadone in HIV-positive patients receiving the non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor efavirenz. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2001 Mar;51(3):213–217. PubMed PMID: 11298066; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2015032.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geletko SM, Erickson AD. Decreased methadone effect after ritonavir initiation. Pharmacotherapy. 2000 Jan;20(1):93–94. PubMed PMID: 10641980.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerber JG, Rosenkranz S, Segal Y, et al. Effect of ritonavir/saquinavir on stereoselective pharmacokinetics of methadone: results of AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG) 401. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001 Jun 1;27(2):153–160. PubMed PMID: 11404537.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guibert A, Furlan V, Martino J, et al., editors. In vitro effect of HIV protease inhibitors on methadone metabolism (abstract A-58). Program and abstracts from the 37th Interscience Conference of Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; 1997; Toronto, Canada.
   Google Scholar
• Antoniou T, Tseng AL. Interactions between recreational drugs and antiretroviral agents. Ann Pharmacother. 2002 Oct;36(10):1598–1613. PubMed PMID: 12243611. DOI:10.1345/aph.1A447.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crana S, Fudin J. Drug interactions among HIV patients receiving concurrent antiretroviral and pain therapy. Practical Pain Management. 2011. p. 1–4. Available from: https://www.practicalpainmanagement.com/treatments/pharmacological/drug-interactions-among-hiv-patients-receiving-concurrent-antiretroviral
   Google Scholar
• Harvoni® (ledipasvir/sofosbuvir) [package insert]. Foster City (CA): Gilead Sciences, Inc; 2017.
   Google Scholar
• MacBrayne CE, Kiser JJ. Pharmacologic considerations in the treatment of Hepatitis C virus in persons with HIV. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Jul 15;63(Suppl 1):S12–23. PubMed PMID: 27363437; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4928451. DOI:10.1093/cid/ciw220. .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AASLD-IDSA. Unique patient populations: patients with HIV/HCV coinfection. Recommendations for Testing, Managing, and Treating Hepatitis C. [cited 2017 Jun 11]. Available from: http://www.hcvguidelines.org/full-report/unique-patient-populations-patients-hivhcv-coinfection
   Google Scholar
• Deeks SG, Lewin SR, Havlir DV. The end of AIDS: HIV infection as a chronic disease. Lancet. 2013 Nov 2;382(9903):1525–1533. PubMed PMID: 24152939; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4058441. DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61809-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torres HA, Mulanovich V. Management of HIV infection in patients with cancer receiving chemotherapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Jul 1;59(1):106–114. PubMed PMID: 24642555; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4305124. DOI:10.1093/cid/ciu174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deeken JF, Pantanowitz L, Dezube BJ. Targeted therapies to treat non-AIDS-defining cancers in patients with HIV on HAART therapy: treatment considerations and research outlook. Curr Opin Oncol. 2009 Sep;21(5):445–454. PubMed PMID: 19606034; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3377583. DOI:10.1097/CCO.0b013e32832f3e04.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fulco PP, Hynicka L, Rackley D. Raltegravir-based HAART regimen in a patient with large B-cell lymphoma. Ann Pharmacother. 2010 Feb;44(2):377–382. PubMed PMID: 20040700. DOI:10.1345/aph.1M370.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson M. Raltegravir use in special populations. Eur J Med Res. 2009 Nov 24;14(Suppl 3):43–46. PubMed PMID: 19959416; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3516827.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Torres HA, Rallapalli V, Saxena A, et al. Efficacy and safety of antiretrovirals in HIV-infected patients with cancer. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2014 Oct;20(10):O672–679. PubMed PMID: 24529214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antoniou T, Tseng AL. Interactions between antiretrovirals and antineoplastic drug therapy. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2005;44(2):111–145. PubMed PMID: 15656694. .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corona G, Vaccher E, Spina M, et al. Potential hazard drug-drug interaction between boosted protease inhibitors and vinblastine in HIV patients with Hodgkin’s lymphoma. AIDS. 2013 Mar 27;27(6):1033–1035. PubMed PMID: 23698067.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiels MS, Pfeiffer RM, Gail MH, et al. Cancer burden in the HIV-infected population in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011 May 4;103(9):753–762. PubMed PMID: 21483021; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3086877.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Beumer JH, Venkataramanan R, Rudek MA. Pharmacotherapy in cancer patients with HIV/AIDS. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2014 Apr;95(4):370–372. PubMed PMID: 24440966; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4091903. DOI:10.1038/clpt.2014.10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berretta M, Caraglia M, Martellotta F, et al. Drug-drug interactions based on pharmacogenetic profile between highly active antiretroviral therapy and antiblastic chemotherapy in cancer patients with HIV infection. Front Pharmacol. 2016;7:71. PubMed PMID: 27065862; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4811911. DOI:10.3389/fphar.2016.00071.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molto J, Rajoli R, Back D, et al. Use of a physiologically based pharmacokinetic model to simulate drug-drug interactions between antineoplastic and antiretroviral drugs. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2017 Mar 1;72(3):805–811. PubMed PMID: 27999009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Francia R, Di Paolo M, Valente D, et al. Pharmacogenetic based drug-drug interactions between highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) and antiblastic chemotherapy. WCRJ. 2014;1(4):e386.
   Google Scholar
• Vaccher E, Spina M, di Gennaro G, et al. Concomitant cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone chemotherapy plus highly active antiretroviral therapy in patients with human immunodeficiency virus-related, non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer. 2001 Jan 1;91(1):155–163. PubMed PMID: 11148572.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ratner L, Lee J, Tang S, et al. Chemotherapy for human immunodeficiency virus-associated non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in combination with highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Clin Oncol. 2001 Apr 15;19(8):2171–2178. PubMed PMID: 11304769.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wainer IW, Ducharme J, Granvil CP, et al. Ifosfamide stereoselective dichloroethylation and neurotoxicity. Lancet. 1994 Apr 16;343(8903):982–983. PubMed PMID: 7909040.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pillai VC, Venkataramanan R, Parise RA, et al. Ritonavir and efavirenz significantly alter the metabolism of erlotinib–an observation in primary cultures of human hepatocytes that is relevant to HIV patients with cancer. Drug Metab Dispos. 2013 Oct;41(10):1843–1851. PubMed PMID: 23913028; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3781374.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pham PA, Flexner C. Emerging antiretroviral drug interactions. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011 Feb;66(2):235–239. PubMed PMID: 21131695. DOI:10.1093/jac/dkq448.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruning A, Vogel M, Mylonas I, et al. Bortezomib targets the caspase-like proteasome activity in cervical cancer cells, triggering apoptosis that can be enhanced by nelfinavir. Curr Cancer Drug Targets. 2011 Sep;11(7):799–809. PubMed PMID: 21762082.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rudek MA, Flexner C, Ambinder RF. Use of antineoplastic agents in patients with cancer who have HIV/AIDS. Lancet Oncol. 2011 Sep;12(9):905–912. PubMed PMID: 21570912; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3343721. DOI:10.1016/S1470-2045(11)70056-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rudek MA, Chang CY, Steadman K, et al. Combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) component ritonavir significantly alters docetaxel exposure. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2014 Apr;73(4):729–736. PubMed PMID: 24488374; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3968228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bower M, McCall-Peat N, Ryan N, et al. Protease inhibitors potentiate chemotherapy-induced neutropenia. Blood. 2004 Nov 1;104(9):2943–2946. PubMed PMID: 15238428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong A, Tseng A. HIV oncology handbook: antiretroviral interactions with chemotherapy regimens. Toronto (ON):Immunodeficiency Clinic, UHN Toronto General Hospital. 2014. [cited 2017 Jun 7]. Available from: http://hivclinic.ca/downloads/HIV%20ONC%20ebook%20ENG.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Uroxatral® [package insert]. Bridgewater (NJ): Sanofi-Aventis U.S. LLC; 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Troost J, Tatami S, Tsuda Y, et al. Effects of strong CYP2D6 and 3A4 inhibitors, paroxetine and ketoconazole, on the pharmacokinetics and cardiovascular safety of tamsulosin. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2011 Aug;72(2):247–256. PubMed PMID: 21496064; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3162654.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamsulosin [drug monograph]. Lexicomp®. Hudson (OH): Wolters Kluwer Clinical Drug Information; 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Ritonavir-tamsulosin (potential interaction summary). University of Liverpool, HIV drug interactions database; [cited 2017 Jun 11]. Available from: www.hiv-druginteractions.org/checker
   Google Scholar
• Aschmann YZ, Kummer O, Linka A, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of sildenafil in a patient treated with human immunodeficiency virus protease inhibitors. Ther Drug Monit. 2008 Feb;30(1):130–134. PubMed PMID: 18223477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loulergue P, Gaillard R, Mir O. Interaction involving tadalafil and CYP3A4 inhibition by ritonavir. Scand J Infect Dis. 2011 Mar;43(3):239–240. PubMed PMID: 20942777. DOI:10.3109/00365548.2010.526139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sekar V, Lefebvre E, De Marez T, et al. Effect of repeated doses of darunavir plus low-dose ritonavir on the pharmacokinetics of sildenafil in healthy male subjects: phase I randomized, open-label, two-way crossover study. Clin Drug Investig. 2008;28(8):479–485. PubMed PMID: 18598093.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahajpal R, Ahmed RA, Hughes CA, et al. Probable interaction between levothyroxine and ritonavir: case report and literature review. Am J Health-Syst Pharmacy. 2017 Apr 15;74(8):587–592. PubMed PMID: 28389458.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McComsey GA, Kitch D, Daar ES, et al. Bone mineral density and fractures in antiretroviral-naive persons randomized to receive abacavir-lamivudine or tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-emtricitabine along with efavirenz or atazanavir-ritonavir: AIDS Clinical Trials Group A5224s, a substudy of ACTG A5202. J Infect Dis. 2011 Jun 15;203(12):1791–1801. PubMed PMID: 21606537; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3100514.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasmussen TA, Jensen D, Tolstrup M, et al. Comparison of bone and renal effects in HIV-infected adults switching to abacavir or tenofovir based therapy in a randomized trial. PloS One. 2012;7(3):e32445. PubMed PMID: 22479327; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3315554. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0032445.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stellbrink H-J, Orkin C, Arribas JR, et al. Comparison of changes in bone density and turnover with abacavir-lamivudine versus tenofovir-emtricitabine in HIV-infected adults: 48-week results from the ASSERT study. Clin Infect Dis. 2010 Oct 15;51(8):963–972. PubMed PMID: 20828304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene KB, Berger J, Reeves C, et al. Most frequently used alternative and complementary therapies and activities by participants in the AMCOA study. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. 1999 May-Jun;10(3):60–73. PubMed PMID: 10707696.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lorenc A, Robinson N. A review of the use of complementary and alternative medicine and HIV: issues for patient care. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2013 Sep;27(9):503–510. PubMed PMID: 23991688; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3760022. DOI:10.1089/apc.2013.0175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Littlewood RA, Vanable PA. Complementary and alternative medicine use among HIV-positive people: research synthesis and implications for HIV care. AIDS Care. 2008 Sep;20(8):1002–1018. PubMed PMID: 18608078; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2570227. DOI:10.1080/09540120701767216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks KM, George JM, Kumar P. Drug interactions in HIV treatment: complementary & alternative medicines and over-the-counter products. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2017 Jan;10(1):59–79. PubMed PMID: 27715369. DOI:10.1080/17512433.2017.1246180. .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Maat MM, Hoetelmans RM, Math RA, et al. Drug interaction between St John’s wort and nevirapine. AIDS. 2001 Feb 16;15(3):420–421. PubMed PMID: 11273226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan A, Mills J. An unusual case of HIV virologic failure during treatment with boosted atazanavir. AIDS. 2013 May 15;27(8):1361–1362. PubMed PMID: 23925384. DOI:10.1097/QAD.0b013e32835fac84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piscitelli SC, Burstein AH, Chaitt D, et al. Indinavir concentrations and St John’s wort. Lancet. 2000 Feb 12;355(9203):547–548. PubMed PMID: 10683007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiegman D-J, Brinkman K, Franssen EJ. Interaction of Ginkgo biloba with efavirenz. AIDS. 2009 Jun 1;23(9):1184–1185. PubMed PMID: 19451798. DOI:10.1097/QAD.0b013e32832c412b.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV Surveill Rep. 2015 [cited 2017 Jun 11];27:25–28. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/library/reports/hiv-surveillance.html
   Google Scholar
• Kosel BW, Aweeka FT, Benowitz NL, et al. The effects of cannabinoids on the pharmacokinetics of indinavir and nelfinavir. AIDS. 2002 Mar 8;16(4):543–550. PubMed PMID: 11872997.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oliveira NM, Ferreira FA, Yonamine RY, et al. Antiretroviral drugs and acute pancreatitis in HIV/AIDS patients: is there any association? A literature review. Einstein. 2014 Jan-Mar;12(1):112–119. PubMed PMID: 24728257; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4898250.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Henry JA, Hill IR. Fatal interaction between ritonavir and MDMA. Lancet. 1998 Nov 28;352(9142):1751–1752. PubMed PMID: 9848354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loch JM, Potter J, Bachmann KA. The influence of anesthetic agents on rat hepatic cytochromes P450 in vivo. Pharmacology. 1995 Mar;50(3):146–153. PubMed PMID: 7746831.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meneguz A, Fortuna S, Lorenzini P, et al. Influence of urethane and ketamine on rat hepatic cytochrome P450 in vivo. Exp Toxicol Pathol. 1999 Jul;51(4–5):392–396. PubMed PMID: 10445403.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stolbach A, Paziana K, Heverling H, et al. A review of the toxicity of HIV medications II: interactions with drugs and complementary and alternative medicine products. J Med Toxicol. 2015 Sep;11(3):326–341. PubMed PMID: 26036354; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4547966.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis JM, Stott KE, Monnery D, et al. Managing potential drug-drug interactions between gastric acid-reducing agents and antiretroviral therapy: experience from a large HIV-positive cohort. Int J STD AIDS. 2016 Feb;27(2):105–109. PubMed PMID: 25721922.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein CE, Chiu Y-L, Cai Y, et al. Effects of acid-reducing agents on the pharmacokinetics of lopinavir/ritonavir and ritonavir-boosted atazanavir. J Clin Pharmacol. 2008 May;48(5):553–562. PubMed PMID: 18440920.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu L, Persson A, Mahnke L, et al. Effect of low-dose omeprazole (20 mg daily) on the pharmacokinetics of multiple-dose atazanavir with ritonavir in healthy subjects. J Clin Pharmacol. 2011 Mar;51(3):368–377. PubMed PMID: 20457590.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crauwels H, Van Heeswijk R, Kestens D, et al. The pharmacokinetic (PK) interaction between omeprazole and TMC278, an investigational non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI). J Int AIDS Soc. 2008;11(Suppl1):P239.
   Google Scholar
• Song I, Borland J, Arya N, et al. Pharmacokinetics of dolutegravir when administered with mineral supplements in healthy adult subjects. J Clin Pharmacol. 2015 May;55(5):490–496. PubMed PMID: 25449994; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4407950.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song I, Borland J, Chen S, et al. Effect of food on the pharmacokinetics of the integrase inhibitor dolutegravir. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012 Mar;56(3):1627–1629. PubMed PMID: 22183173; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3294934.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azevedo L, Pego H, Souto Moura T, et al. Iatrogenic Cushing’s syndrome and osteoporosis due to an interaction between fluticasone and ritonavir. BMJ Case Rep. 2015 Oct:29;2015. PubMed PMID: 26516245. DOI:10.1136/bcr-2015-211080.
   Google Scholar
• Hillebrand-Haverkort ME, Prummel MF, Ten Veen JH. Ritonavir-induced Cushing’s syndrome in a patient treated with nasal fluticasone. AIDS. 1999 Sep 10;13(13):1803. PubMed PMID: 10509596.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahlab-Guri K, Asher I, Gradstein S, et al. Inhaled fluticasone causes iatrogenic Cushing’s syndrome in patients treated with ritonavir. J Asthma. 2011 Oct;48(8):860–863. PubMed PMID: 21854345.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frankel JK, Packer CD. Cushing’s syndrome due to antiretroviral-budesonide interaction. Ann Pharmacother. 2011 Jun;45(6):823–824. PubMed PMID: 21558486. DOI:10.1345/aph.1P731.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kedem E, Shahar E, Hassoun G, et al. Iatrogenic Cushing’s syndrome due to coadministration of ritonavir and inhaled budesonide in an asthmatic human immunodeficiency virus infected patient. J Asthma. 2010 Sep;47(7):830–831. PubMed PMID: 20653496.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoganathan K, David L, Williams C, et al. Cushing’s syndrome with adrenal suppression induced by inhaled budesonide due to a ritonavir drug interaction in a woman with HIV infection. Int J STD AIDS. 2012 Jul;23(7):520–521. PubMed PMID: 22844010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saberi P, Phengrasamy T, Nguyen DP. Inhaled corticosteroid use in HIV-positive individuals taking protease inhibitors: a review of pharmacokinetics, case reports and clinical management. HIV Med. 2013 Oct;14(9):519–529. PubMed PMID: 23590676; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3758391. DOI:10.1111/hiv.12039.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarze-Zander C, Klingmuller D, Klumper J, et al. Triamcinolone and ritonavir leading to drug-induced Cushing syndrome and adrenal suppression: description of a new case and review of the literature. Infection. 2013 Dec;41(6):1183–1187. PubMed PMID: 23873267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song Y, Schroeder JR, Bush LM. Iatrogenic Cushing syndrome and secondary adrenal insufficiency related to concomitant triamcinolone and ritonavir administration: a case report and review. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care. 2014 Nov-Dec;13(6):511–514. PubMed PMID: 25513635.
   Google Scholar
• Molloy A, Matheson NJ, Meyer PA, et al. Cushing’s syndrome and adrenal axis suppression in a patient treated with ritonavir and corticosteroid eye drops. AIDS. 2011 Jun 19;25(10):1337–1339. PubMed PMID: 21659797.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rainsbury PG, Sharp J, Tappin A, et al. Ritonavir and topical ocular corticosteroid induced cushing’s syndrome in an adolescent with HIV-1 infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2017 May;36(5):502–503. PubMed PMID: 28060049.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hempenius L, Slaets JP, Boelens MA, et al. Inclusion of frail elderly patients in clinical trials: solutions to the problems. J Geriatr Oncol. 2013 Jan;4(1):26–31. PubMed PMID: 24071489.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curno MJ, Rossi S, Hodges-Mameletzis I, et al. A systematic review of the inclusion (or exclusion) of women in HIV research: from clinical studies of antiretrovirals and vaccines to cure strategies. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016 Feb 1;71(2):181–188. PubMed PMID: 26361171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poon R, Khanijow K, Umarjee S, et al. Participation of women and sex analyses in late-phase clinical trials of new molecular entity drugs and biologics approved by the FDA in 2007-2009. J Womens Health. 2013 Jul;22(7):604–616. PubMed PMID: 23768021; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3704049.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheehan NL, Kelly DV, Tseng AL, et al. Evaluation of HIV drug interaction web sites. Ann Pharmacother. 2003 Nov;37(11):1577–1586. PubMed PMID: 14565802.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirsch JD, Rosenquist A, Best BM, et al. Evaluation of the first year of a pilot program in community pharmacy: HIV/AIDS medication therapy management for Medi-Cal beneficiaries. J Manag Care Spec Pharm. 2009 Jan-Feb;15(1):32–41. PubMed PMID: 19125548.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abrass CK, Appelbaum JS, Boyd CM, et al. The HIV and Aging Consensus Project: recommended treatment strategies for clinicians managing older individuals with the human immunodeficiency virus. 2014 Nov 17. [cited 2017 Jun 11]. Available from: http://hiv-age.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/HIVandAgingConsensusProject051815.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Sangarlangkarn A, Appelbaum JS. Caring for older adults with the human immunodeficiency virus. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2016 Nov;64(11):2322–2329. PubMed PMID: 27682476. DOI:10.1111/jgs.14584.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Child CG, Turcotte JG. Surgery and portal hypertension. Major Probl Clin Surg. 1964;1:1–85. PubMed PMID: 4950264.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pugh RN, Murray-Lyon IM, Dawson JL, et al. Transection of the oesophagus for bleeding oesophageal varices. Br J Surg. 1973 Aug;60(8):646–649. PubMed PMID: 4541913.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heelon M, Skiest D, Tereso G, et al. Effect of a clinical pharmacist’s interventions on duration of antiretroviral-related errors in hospitalized patients. Am J Health-Syst Pharmacy. 2007 Oct 1;64(19):2064–2068. PubMed PMID: 17893418.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• March K, Mak M, Louie SG. Effects of pharmacists’ interventions on patient outcomes in an HIV primary care clinic. Am J Health-Syst Pharmacy. 2007 Dec 15;64(24):2574–2578. PubMed PMID: 18056946. DOI:10.2146/ajhp070048.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schafer JJ, Gill TK, Sherman EM, et al. ASHP guidelines on pharmacist involvement in HIV care. Am J Health-Syst Pharmacy. 2016 Apr 1;73(7):468–494. PubMed PMID: 26892679.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tseng A, Foisy M, Hughes CA, et al. Role of the pharmacist in caring for patients with HIV/AIDS: clinical practice guidelines. Can J Hosp Pharm. 2012 Mar;65(2):125–145. PubMed PMID: 22529405; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3329905.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Roberts D, Rylands J, Sinclair D. Interventions using mobile devices (phones, smart phones, or tablets) to improve adherence to treatment for HIV or tuberculosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Sept;15(9): CD012353. Available from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD012353/epdf
   Google Scholar
• Nieuwlaat R, Wilczynski N, Navarro T, et al. Interventions for enhancing medication adherence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Nov;20(11):CD000011. PubMed PMID: 25412402.
   Google Scholar
• Santo K, Richtering SS, Chalmers J, et al. Mobile phone apps to improve medication adherence: a systematic stepwise process to identify high-quality apps. JMIR mHealth uHealth. 2016 Dec 2;4(4):e132. PubMed PMID: 27913373; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5161780. DOI:10.2196/mhealth.6742.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subhi Y, Bube SH, Rolskov Bojsen S, et al. Expert involvement and adherence to medical evidence in medical mobile phone apps: a systematic review. JMIR mHealth uHealth. 2015 Jul 27;3(3):e79. PubMed PMID: 26215371; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4705370.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar