Autonomic dysreflexia and boosting in disability sport: exploring the subjective meanings, management strategies, moral justifications, and perceptions of risk among male, spinal cord injured, wheelchair athletes.

References

• Altmann, V., A. Hart, J. Limbeek, and Y. Vanlandewijck. 2014. “Improvement of the Classification System for Wheelchair Rugby: Athlete Priorities.” Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 31: 377–389. doi:10.1123/apaq.2013-0064.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Backhouse, S., C. Griffiths, and J. McKenna. 2017. “Tackling Doping in Sport: A Call to Take Action on the Dopogenic Environment.” British Journal of Sports Medicine. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2016-097169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Backhouse, S., J. McKenna, and L. Patterson. 2009. Prevention though Education: A Review of Current Social Science Literature. Montreal, Canada: World Anti Doping Agency.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. 1991. “Social Cognitive Theory of Moral Thought and Action.” In Handbook of Moral Behaviour and Development: Theory, Research and Applications, edited by W. Kurtines and J. Gewirtz, 71–129. Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Bhambhani, Y., J. Mactavish, S. Warren, W. R. Thompson, A. Webborn, E. Bressans, M. T. De Mello, et al. 2010. “Boosting in Athletes with High-Level Spinal Cord Injury: Knowledge, Incidence and Attitudes of Athletes in Paralympic Sport.” Disability and Rehabilitation 32: 2172–2190. doi:10.3109/09638288.2010.505678.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blauwet, C., H. Benjamin-Laing, J. Stomphorst, P. Van de Vliet, P. Pit-Grosheide, and S. Willick. 2013. “Testing for Boosting at the Paralympic Games: Policies, Results and Future Directions.” British Journal of Sports Medicine 47: 832–837. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2012-092103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boardley, D., and M. Kavussanu. 2011. “Moral Disengagement in Sport.” International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology 4: 93–108. doi:10.1080/1750984X.2011.570361.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braun, V., V. Clarke, and P. Weate. 2016. “Using Thematic Analysis in Sport and Exercise Research.” In Routledge Handbook of Qualitative Research in Sport and Exercise, edited by B. Smith and A. Sparkes, 191–295. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Brighton, J. 2014. Narratives of spinal cord injury and the sporting body: An ethnographic study. Unpublished PhD thesis. Leeds Beckett University.
   Google Scholar
• Chatterjee, R., and S. Bains, 2018. “Autonomic Dysreflexia and Boosting: Non-Pharmacological Doping in Disability Sport”. British Journal of Sports Medicine Blog. Accessed 7 May 2019 https://blogs.bmj.com/bjsm/2018/08/06/autonomic-dysreflexia-and-boosting-non-pharmacological-doping-in-disability-sport/
   Google Scholar
• Connell, R. 2002. Gender. Cambridge: Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Donnelly, P. 2004. “Sport and Risk Culture.” In Sporting Bodies, Damaged Selves: Sociological Studies of Sports-Related Injuries, edited by K. Young, 29–57. Oxford: Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Elbe, A.-M., and R. Brand. 2016. “The Effect of an Ethical Decision-Making Training on Young Athletes’ Attitudes Towards Doping.” Ethics & Behaviour 26: 32–44. doi:10.1080/10508422.2014.976864.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans, J., B. Davies, and E. Rich. 2009. “The Body Made Flesh: Embodied Learning and the Corporeal Device.” British Journal of Sociology of Education 30: 391–406. doi:10.1080/01425690902954588.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gard, M., and H. Fitzgerald. 2008. “Tackling Murderball: Masculinity, Disability and the Big Screen.” Sport, Ethics and Philosophy 2: 26–141. doi:10.1080/17511320802222008.
   Google Scholar
• Gee, C., C. West, and A. Krassioukov. 2015. “Boosting in Elite Athletes with Spinal Cord Injury: A Critical Review of Physiology and Testing Procedures.” Sports Medicine 45: 1133–1142. doi:10.1007/s40279-015-0340-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gee, C., M. Lacroix, and C. West. 2018. “Effect of Unintentional Boosting on Exercise Performance in a Tetraplegic Athlete.” Medicine and Science in Sports & Exercise 50: 2398–2400. doi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000001738.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson, J. 2009. “Equipping Athletes to Make Informed Decisions about Performance-Enhancing Drug Use: A Constructivist Perspective from Educational Psychology.” Sport in Society 12: 394–410. doi:10.1080/17430430802673734.
   Google Scholar
• Harris, P. 1994. “Editorial: Self-Induced Autonomic Dysreflexia (‘Boosting’) Practised by Some Tetraplegic Athletes to Enhance Their Athletic Performance.” Paraplegia 32: 289–291. doi:10.1038/sc.1994.50.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Howe, P. D., and C. Jones. 2006. “Classification of Disabled Athletes: (Dis)Empowering the Paralympic Practice Community.” Sociology of Sport Journal 23: 29–46. doi:10.1123/ssj.23.1.29.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Paralympic Committee Handbook 2016. IPC Position Statement on Autonomic Dysreflexia and Boosting (Section 2, Chapter 4.3,2).
   Google Scholar
• International Wheelchair Rugby Federation. 2011. International Wheelchair Rugby Classification Manual. (3rd. rev.). British Columbia, Canada: IWRF Publications. Accessed http://www.iwrf.com/?page=classification
   Google Scholar
• Jones, C., and P. D. Howe. 2005. “The Conceptual Boundaries of Sport for the Disabled: Classification and Athletic Performance.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 32: 133–146. doi:10.1080/00948705.2005.9714678.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laurendeau, J. 2008. “‘Gendered Risk Regimes’: A Theoretical Consideration of Edgework. And Gender.” Sociology of Sport Journal 25: 293–309. doi:10.1123/ssj.25.3.293.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Legg, D., and D. Mason. 1998. “Autonomic Dysreflexia in Wheelchair Sport: A New Game in the Legal Arena?” Marquette Sports Law Review 8: 225–237.
   Google Scholar
• Lindemann, K., and L. Cherney. 2008. “Communicating in and through “Murderball”: Masculinity and Disability in Wheelchair Rugby.” Western Journal of Communication 72: 107–125. doi:10.1080/10570310802038382.
   Google Scholar
• Long, K., S. Meredith, and G. Bell. 1997. “Autonomic Dysreflexia and Boosting in Wheelchair Athletes.” Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 14: 203–209. doi:10.1123/apaq.14.3.203.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyng, S. 1990. “Edgework: A Social Psychological Analysis of Voluntary Risk-Taking.” American Journal of Sociology 95: 851–886. doi:10.1086/229379.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazzeo, F., S. Santamaria, and A. Lavarone. 2015. “‘Boosting’ in Paralympic Athletes with Spinal Cord Injury: Doping without Drugs.” Functional Neurology 30: 91–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messner, M. 1992. Power at Play: Sport and the Problem of Masculinity. Boston: Beacon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mills, P., and A. Krassioukov. 2011. “Autonomic Function as a Missing Piece of the Classification of Paralympic Athletes with Spinal Cord Injury.” Spinal Cord 49: 768–776. doi:10.1038/sc.2011.2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monaghan, L. 2001. Bodybuilding, Drugs and Risk. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Murderball. 2005. “Directed by Henry Alex Rubin & Sama Adam Shapiro.” Paramount Pictures.
   Google Scholar
• Purdue, D., and P. D. Howe. 2013. “See The Sport, Not The Disability: Exploring The Paralympic Paradox.” Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health 4: 189–205. doi:10.1080/2159676X.2012.685102.
   Google Scholar
• Rhodes, J., B. Mason, B. Perrat, M. Smith, L. Malone, and V. Goosey-Tolfrey. 2015a. “Activity Profiles of Elite Wheelchair Rugby Players during Competition.” International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 10: 318–324. doi:10.1123/ijspp.2014-0203.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhodes, J., B. Mason, L. Malone, and V. Goosey-Tolfrey. 2015b. “Effect of Team Rank and Player Classification on Activity Profiles of Elite Wheelchair Rugby Players.” Journal of Sports Science 30: 2070–2078. doi:10.1080/02640414.2015.1028087.
   Google Scholar
• Riessman, C. 2008. Narrative Methods for the Human Sciences. London: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Ryba, T., S. Haapanen, S. Mosek, and K. Ng. 2012. “Toward A Conceptual Understanding of Acute Cultural Adaption: A Preliminary Examination of Aca in Female Swimming.” Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health 4: 80–97. doi:10.1080/2159676X.2011.653498.
   Google Scholar
• Schmid, A., A. Schmidt-Trucksäû, M. Huonker, D. König, I. Eisenbarth, H. Sauerwein, C. Brunner, M. J. Storch, M. Lehmann, and J. Keul. 2001. “Catecholamine Response of High Performance Wheelchair Athletes at Rest and during Exercise with Autonomic Dysreflexia.” International Journal of Sports Medicine 22: 2–7. doi:10.1055/s-2001-11330.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, B., and A. Sparkes. 2016. “Interviews: Qualitative Interviewing in the Sport and Exercise Sciences.” In Routledge Handbook of Qualitative Research in Sport and Exercise, edited by B. Smith and A. Sparkes, 103–123. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Sparkes, A., and B. Smith. 2014. Qualitative Research Methods in Sport, Exercise and Health: From Process to Product. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Sparkes, A., and C. Stewart. 2019. “On-Line First. How Stories as Actors Cause Trouble in Lives: A Dialogical Narrative Analysis of A Competitive Cyclist and the Fall from Grace of Lance Armstrong.” Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise & Health 1–18. doi:10.1080/2159676X.2019.1578253.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sparkes, A., J. Brighton, and K. Inckle. 2018a. “‘It's a Part Of Me’: An Ethnographic Exploration Of Becoming a Disabled Sporting Cyborg Following Spinal Cord Injury.” Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise & Health 10: 151-166.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sparkes, A., J. Brighton, and K. Inckle. 2018b. “Imperfect Perfection and Wheelchair Bodybuilding.” Challenging Ableism or Reproducing Normalcy? Sociology 52: 1307-1323.
   Google Scholar
• Tracy, S. 2010. “Qualitative Quality: Eight ‘Big-Tent Criteria for Excellent Qualitative Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 16: 837–851. doi:10.1177/1077800410383121.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warburton, D. 2010. “Commentary: Lessons Learned from an Outlier.” Health & Fitness Journal of Canada 3: 43–46.
   Google Scholar
• Webborn, A. 1999. “‘Boosting’ Performance in Disability Sport.” British Journal of Sports Medicine 33: 74–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wellard, I. 2009. Sport, Masculinities and the Body. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• White, P., and K. Young, Eds. 1999. Sport and Gender in Canada. Toronto: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• World Anti-Doping Agency 2015. World anti-doping code 2015 (with 2018 amendments). [ONLINE]. Accessed 10 May 2019 https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/wada_anti-doping_code_2018_english_final.pdf
   Google Scholar
• World Anti-Doping Agency 2019. “The World Anti-Doping Code International Standard Prohibited List: January 2019.” [ONLINE]. Accessed 10 May 2019 https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/wada_2019_english_prohibited_list.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Zdanivsky, B. 2010. “The Patient’s Perspective: Observations from an Outlier.” Health & Fitness Journal of Canada 3: 39–42.
   Google Scholar