The role of artificial cells in the fight against COVID-19: deliver vaccine, hemoperfusion removes toxic cytokines, nanobiotherapeutics lower free radicals and pCO₂ and replenish blood supply

References

• Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 2020;395(10229):1054–1062.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang TMS. Artificial cell evolves into nanomedicine, biotherapeutics, blood substitutes, drug delivery, enzyme/gene therapy, cancer therapy, cell/stem cell therapy, nanoparticles, liposomes, bioencapsulation, replicating synthetic cells, cell encapsulation/scaffold, biosorbent/immunosorbent haemoperfusion/plasmapheresis, regenerative medicine, encapsulated microbe, nanobiotechnology, nanotechnology, artificial cells. Nanomed Biotechnol. 2019;47(1):997–1013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang TMS. Semipermeable microcapsules. Science. 1964;146(3643):524–525.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang TMS. Artificial cells. Springfield (IL): Charles C. Thomas; 1972. Out of print but available for free online viewing/download at www.artcell.mcgill.ca/1972bookcovercr.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Chang TMS. Therapeutic applications of polymeric artificial cells. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2005;4(3):221–235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torchilin VP. Recent advances with liposomes as pharmaceutical carriers. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2005;4(2):145–160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang TMS. Monograph on “Artificial cells: biotechnology, nanotechnology, blood substitutes, regenerative medicine, bioencapsulation, cell/stem cell therapy”. Singapore: World Scientific Publisher/Imperial College Press; 2007. p. 435. Available for free online viewing at https://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/artcell/2007%20ebook%20artcell%20web.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Editorial (2018): focus on the benefits of building life’s systems from scratch. Nature. 2018;563:155. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-07285-1.
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell MJ, Billingsley MM, Haley RM, et al. Engineering precision nanoparticles for drug delivery. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2021;20(2):101–124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulkarni JA, Tam YYC, Chen S, et al. Rapid synthesis of lipid nanoparticles containing hydrophobic inorganic nanoparticles. Nanoscale. 2017;9(36):13600–13609.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dhiman N, Awasthi R, Sharma B, et al. Lipid nanoparticles as carriers for bioactive delivery. Front Chem. 2021;9:580118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang TMS. The one-shot vaccine. In: Heden C-G, editor. Socio-economic and ethical implications of enzyme engineering. Stockholm (Sweden): International Federation of Institutes for Advanced Studies; 1975. p. 17–18.
   Google Scholar
• Chang TMS. Biodegradable semipermeable microcapsules containing enzymes, hormones, vaccines, and other biologicals. J Bioeng. 1976;1:25–32.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holtkamp S, Kreiter S, Selmi A, et al. Modification of antigen-encoding RNA increases stability, translational efficacy, and T-cell stimulatory capacity of dendritic cells. Blood. 2006;108(13):4009–4017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abuchowski A, Kazo GM, Verhoest CR, Jr., et al. Cancer therapy with chemically modified enzymes. I. Antitumor properties of polyethylene glycol-asparaginase conjugates. Cancer Biochem Biophys. 1984;7(2):175–186.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mueller P, Rudin D. Resting and action potential in experimental bilayer lipid membranes. J Theor. Biol. 1968;18(2):222–258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bangham AD, Standish MM, Watkins JC, et al. Diffusion of univalent ions across the lamellae of swollen phospholipids. J Mol Biol. 1965;13(1):238–252.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregoriadis G, editor. Drug carriers in biology and medicine. New York: Academic Press, Inc.; 1976.
   Google Scholar
• Deamer DW, Bangham AD. Large-volume liposomes by an ether vaporization method. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1976;443(3):629–634.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kowalski PS, Rudra A, Miao L, et al. Delivering the messenger: advances in technologies for therapeutic mRNA delivery. Mol Ther. 2019;27(4):710–728.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hajj KA, Whitehead KA. Tools for translation: non-viral materials for therapeutic mRNA delivery. Nat. Rev. Mater. 2017;2:17056.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahin U, Karikó K, Türeci Ö. mRNA-based therapeutics–developing a new class of drugs. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2014;13(10):759–780.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ronco C, Reis T, De Rosa S. Coronavirus epidemic and extracorporeal therapies in intensive care: si vis pacem para bellum. Blood Purif. 2020;49(3):255–258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang TMS. Semipermeable aqueous microcapsules (“artificial cells”): with emphasis on experiments in an extracorporeal shunt system. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs. 1966;12:13–19.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chang TM, Coffey JF, Barré P, et al. Microcapsule artificial kidney: treatment of patients with acute drug intoxication. Can Med Assoc J. 1973;108(4):429–433.,.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang TMS. Microencapsulated adsorbent hemoperfusion for uremia, intoxication and hepatic failure. Kidney Int. 1975;7:S387–S392.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang TMS, Endo Y, Nicolaev VG, et al., editors. Hemoperfusion and plasma-perfusion and other clinical uses of general, biospecific, immune and leucocyte adsorbents. Regenerative medicine, artificial cells and nanomedicine. Vol. 4. Singapore: World Scientific Publisher/Imperial College Press; 2017. p. 1004.
   Google Scholar
• Chang TMS. First design and clinical use in patients of surface modified sorbent hemoperfusion based on artificial cells for poisoning, kidney failure, liver failure and immunology. Chang TMS, Endo Y, Nicolaev VG, et al., editors. Hemoperfusion and plasma- perfusion and other clinical uses of general, biospecific, immune and leucocyte adsorbents. Regenerative medicine, artificial cells and nanomedicine. Vol. 4. Singapore: World Scientific Publisher/Imperial College Press; 2017. p. 3–77. www.medicine.mcgill.ca/artcell/HPBk_Ch1.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Wang YJ, Yu YT. Development of resin adsorbents for blood purification at Nankai University in China. Artif Cell Blood Sub. 2011;39(2):92–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen J, Han W, Su R, et al. Non-ionic macroporous polystyrene adsorbents for removal of serum toxins in liver failure by hemoperfusion. Artif Cells Nanomed Biotechnol. 2017;45(1):174–183.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chavez JR, Danguilan RA, Arakama MI, et al. A case of leptospirosis with acute respiratory failure and acute kidney injury treated with simultaneous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and haemoperfusion. BMJ Case Rep. 2019;12(5):e229582–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arslan B, Kucukbingoz C, Kutuk M, et al. Single-center experience with resin adsorption hemoperfusion combined with continuous veno-venous hemofiltration for septic shock patients. Med Sci. 2019;8(2):390–394.
   Google Scholar
• Du Y, Qi Z, Ma J, et al. Case report: a patient with COVID-19 who benefited from hemoadsorption. Front Med. 2020;7:607849.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Q, Hu Z. Successful recovery of severe COVID-19 with cytokine stormtreating with extracorporeal blood purification. Int J Infect Dis. 2020;96:618–620.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu X, Jia C, Luo S, et al. Effect of HA330 resin-directed hemoadsorption on a porcine acute respiratory distress syndrome model ann. Ann Intensive Care. 2017;7(1):84–87.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wang Y-T, Fu J-J, Li X-L, et al. Effects of hemodialysis and hemoperfusion on inflammatory factors and nuclear transcription factors in peripheral blood cell of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Eur Rev Med Pharm Sci. 2016;20:745–750.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang Z, Wang SR, Yang ZL, et al. Effect on extrapulmonary sepsis-induced acute lung injury by hemoperfusion with neutral microporous resin column. Ther Apher Dial. 2013;17(4):454–461.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dastan F, Saffaei A, Mortazavi SM, et al. Continues renal replacement therapy (CRRT) with disposable hemoperfusion cartridge: a promising option for severe COVID-19. J Glob Antimicrob Resist. 2020;21:340–341.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang Y, et al. Extracorporeal blood purification therapy using hemoadsorption type hemoperfusion improves ICU outcomes in critically ill patients with SAR-CoV-2 infection – a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2020.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wu J. Tackle the free radicals damage in COVID-19. Nitric Oxide. 2020;102:39–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shadyro O, Samovich S, Edimecheva I, et al. Potential role of free-radical processes in biomolecules damage during COVID-19 and ways of their regulation. Free Radical Res. 2021;55(7):665–676.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenzhong L, Hualan L. COVID-19: captures iron and generates reactive oxygen species to damage the human immune system. Autoimmunity. 2021;54(4):213–224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sims C, Seigne P, Menconi M, et al. Skeletal muscle acidosis correlates with the severity of blood volume loss during shock and resuscitation. J Trauma. 2001;51:1137–1146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tronstad C, Pischke SE, Holhjem L, et al. Early detection of cardiac ischemia using a conductometric PCO2 sensor: real-time drift correction and parameterization. Physiol Meas. 2010;31(9):1241–1255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Red Cross declares first-ever blood crisis amid omicron surge. https://www.redcross.org/about-us/news-and-events/press-release/2022/blood-donors-needed-now-as-omicron-intensifies.html.
   Google Scholar
• Bian Y, Chang TMS. A novel nanobiotherapeutical poly-[hemoglobin- superoxide dismutase-catalase-carbonic anhydrase] with no cardiac toxicity for the resuscitation of a 90 minutes sustained severe hemorrhagic shock rat model with 2/3 blood volume loss artificial cells. Nanomedicine and Biotechnology. 2015;43(1):1–9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo C, Chang TMS. Long term safety and immunological effects of a nanobiotherapeutic, bovine poly-[hemoglobin-catalase-superoxide dismutase- carbonic anhydrase], after four weekly 5% blood volume top-loading followed by a challenge of 30% exchange transfusion. Artif Cells Nanomed Biotechnol. 2018;46(7):1349–1363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang TMS. Translational feasibility of soluble nanobiotherapeutics with enhanced red blood cell functions. Artif Cells Nanomed Biotechnol. 2017;45(4):671–676.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang TMS. Stabilisation of enzymes by microencapsulation with a concentrated protein solution or by microencapsulation followed by cross- linking with glutaraldehyde. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1971;44(6):1531–1536.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jahr JS. Hemoglobin-glutamer 250 (bovine) [HBOC-201, Hemopure®] clinical use in South Africa and comprehensive review of cardiac outcomes and risk/benefit in Peer-Reviewed, indexed studies in humans and animal models. In: Chang TMS, Bulow L, Jahr JS, et al., editors. Nanobiotherapeutic based blood substitutes. Singapore: World Science Publisher; 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Moore E, Moore FA, Fabian TC, et al. Human polymerized hemoglobin for the treatment of hemorrhagic shock when blood is unavailable: the USA multicenter trial. J Am Coll Surg. 2009;208(1):1–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D'Agnillo F, Chang TM. Polyhemoglobin-superoxide dismutasecatalase as a blood substitute with antioxidant properties. Nat Biotechnol. 1998;16(7):667–671.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powanda D, C, TMS. Cross-linked polyhemoglobin- superoxide dismutase-catalase supplies oxygen without causing blood brain barrier disruption or brain edema in a rat model of transient global brain ischemia-reperfusion. Artif Cells Blood Substit Immobil Biotechnol. 2002;30:25–42.
   Google Scholar
• Razack S, D'Agnillo F, Chang TM. Crosslinked hemoglobin-superoxide dismutase-catalase scavenges free radicals in a rat model of intestinal ischemia-reperfusion injury. Artif Cells Blood Substit Immobil Biotechnol. 1997;25(1–2):181–192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma L, Hsia CJC. Polynitroxylated hemoglobin as a multifunctional therapeutic for critical care and transfusion medicine. In: Chang TMS, editor. Selected topics in nanomedicine. Singapore: World Science Publisher/Imperial College Press; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Simoni J, Simoni G, Lox CD, et al. Modified hemoglobin solution with desired pharmacological properties does not activate nuclear transcription factor NF-kappa B in human vascular endothelial cells. Artif Cells Blood Substit Immobil Biotechnol. 1997;25(1–2):193–210.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zal F. 2017. Use of HEMO2life – an innovative oxygen carrier in organ transplantation abstract. 2017 International Symposium on Blood Substitutes. www.artcell.mcgill.ca
   Google Scholar
• Jia YP, Alayash AI. Molecular basis of haptoglobin and hemoglobin complex formation and protection against oxidative stress and damage. In: Chang TMS, editor. Selected topics in nanomedicine. Singapore: World Science Publisher/Imperial College Press; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Kettisen K, Bülow L. Cysteine mutations in recombinant fetal hemoglobin influence oxidative side-reactions. In: Chang TMS, Bulow L, Jahr JS, et al., editors. Nanobiotherapeutic based blood substitutes. Singapore: World Science Publisher; 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Chan G, Chang TMS. Dual effects include antioxidant and pro- oxidation of ascorbic acid on the redox properties of bovine hemoglobin. In: Chang TMS, Bulow L, Jahr JS, et al., editors. Nanobiotherapeutic based blood substitutes. Singapore: World Science Publisher; 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Liu JX, Yang CM. Development and future of Chinese transfusion medicine and blood substitutes. In: Chang TMS, Bulow L, Jahr JS, et al., editors. Nanobiotherapeutic based blood substitutes. Singapore: World Science Publisher; 2021. p. 161–168.
   Google Scholar
• Guo C, Gynn M, Chang TMS. Extraction of superoxide dismutase, catalase and carbonic anhydrase from stroma-free red blood cell hemolysate for the preparation of the nanobiotechnological complex of polyhemoglobin-superoxide dismutase-catalase-carbonic anhydrase. Artif Cells Nanomed Biotechnol. 2015;43(3):157–62162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang TMS, BulowL, JahrJS, et al., editors. Nanobiotherapeutic based blood substitutes. Singapore: World Science Publisher; 2021. p. 1140.
   Google Scholar
• Chang TMS. 2022. Artificial cells, blood substitutes and nanomedicine website containing reviews and monographs for free online viewing or download www.artcell.mcgill.ca.
   Google Scholar
• Bian Y, Guo C, Chang TMS. Temperature stability of poly-[hemoglobin-superoxide dismutase–catalase-carbonic anhydrase] in the form of a solution or in the lyophilized form during storage at -80 °C, 4 °C, 25 °C and 37 °C or pasteurization at 70 °C. Artif Cells Nanomed Biotechnol. 2016;44(1):41–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar