308
Views
16
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

This will only take a minute: Time cutoffs are superior to accuracy cutoffs on the forced choice recognition trial of the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test – Revised

, , , &

References

  • Abeare, C. A., Freund, S., Kaploun, K., McAuley, T., & Dumitrescu, C. (2017). The Emotion Word Fluency Test (EWFT): Initial psychometric, validation, and physiological evidence in young adults. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 39(8), 738–752. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2016.1259396
  • Abeare, C., Erdodi, L., Messa, I., Terry, D. P., Panenka, W. J., Iverson, G. L., & Silverberg, N. D. (2021). Development of embedded performance validity indicators in the NIH Toolbox Cognitive Battery. Psychological Assessment, 33(1), 90–96. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000958
  • Abeare, C. A., Hurtubise, J., Cutler, L., Sirianni, C., Brantuo, M., Makhzoun, N., & Erdodi, L. (2020). Introducing a forced choice recognition trial to the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test – Revised. The Clinical Neuropsychologist. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2020.1779348
  • Abeare, C., Messa, I., Whitfield, C., Zuccato, B., Casey, J., Rykulski, N., & Erdodi, L. (2019). Performance validity in collegiate football athletes at baseline neurocognitive testing. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 34(4), E20–E31. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000451
  • Abeare, C., Sabelli, A., Taylor, B., Holcomb, M., Dumitrescu, C., Kirsch, N., & Erdodi, L. (2019). The importance of demographically adjusted cutoffs: Age and education bias in raw score cutoffs within the Trail Making Test. Psychological Injury and Law, 12(2), 170–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-019-09353
  • Abramson, D. A., Resch, Z. J., Ovsiew, G. P., White, D. J., Bernstein, M. T., Basurto, K. S., & Soble, J. R. (2020). Impaired or invalid? Limitations of assessing performance validity using the Boston Naming Test. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2020.1774378
  • An, K. Y., Charles, J., Ali, S., Enache, A., Dhuga, J., & Erdodi, L. A. (2019). Reexamining performance validity cutoffs within the Complex Ideational Material and the Boston Naming Test-Short Form using an experimental malingering paradigm. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 41(1), 15–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2018.1483488
  • An, K. Y., Kaploun, K., Erdodi, L. A., & Abeare, C. A. (2017). Performance validity in undergraduate research participants: A comparison of failure rates across tests and cutoffs. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(1), 193–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2016.1217046
  • Arentsen, T. J., Boone, K. B., Lo, T. T., Goldberg, H. E., Cottingham, M. E., Victor, T. L., Ziegler, E., & Zeller, M. A. (2013). Effectiveness of the Comalli Stroop Test as a measure of negative response bias. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 27(6), 1060–1076. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2013.803603
  • Ashendorf, L. (2019). Neurobehavioral symptom validity in U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) mild traumatic brain injury evaluations. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 41(4), 432–441. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2019.1567693
  • Ashendorf, L., Clark, E. L., & Sugarman, M. A. (2017). Performance validity and processing speed in a VA polytrauma sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(5), 857–866. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1285961
  • Axelrod, B. N., Fichtenberg, N. L., Liethen, P. C., Czarnota, M. A., & Stucky, K. (2001). Performance characteristics of postacute traumatic brain injury patients on the WAIS-III and WMS-III. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 15(4), 516–520. https://doi.org/10.1076/clin.15.4.516.1884
  • Axelrod, B. N., Meyers, J. E., & Davis, J. J. (2014). Finger tapping test performance as a measure of performance validity. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(5), 876–888. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2014.907583
  • Bailey, K. C., Soble, J. R., Bain, K. M., & Fullen, C. (2018). Embedded performance validity tests in the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised and the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test-Revised: A Replication Study. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 33(7), 895–900. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acx111
  • Bain, K. M., & Soble, J. R. (2019). Validation of the Advanced Clinical Solutions Word Choice Test (WCT) in a mixed clinical sample: Establishing classification accuracy, sensitivity/specificity, and cutoff scores. Assessment, 26(7), 1320–1328. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191117725172
  • Bain, K. M., Soble, J. R., Webber, T. A., Messerly, J. M., Bailey, K. C., Kirton, J. W., & McCoy, K. J. M. (2021). Cross-validation of three advanced clinical solutions performance validity tests: Examining combinations of measures to maximize classification of invalid performance. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 28(1), 24–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2019.1585352
  • Barhon, L. I., Batchelor, J., Meares, S., Chekaluk, E., & Shores, E. A. (2015). A comparison of the degree of effort involved in the TOMM and the ACS Word Choice Test using a dual-task paradigm. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult, 22(2), 114–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2013.863775
  • Berger, C., Lev, A., Braw, Y., Elbaum, T., Wagner, M., & Rassovsky, Y. (2019). Detection of feigned ADHD using the MOXO-d-CPT. Journal of Attention Disorders, 1(16), 108705471986465. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054719864656
  • Bigler, E. D. (2012). Symptom validity testing, effort, and neuropsychological assessment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS, 18(4), 632–642. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617712000252
  • Bigler, E. D. (2014). Effort, symptom validity testing, performance validity testing and traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 28(13–14), 1623–1638. https://doi.org/10.3109/02699052.2014.947627
  • Bigler, E. D. (2015). Neuroimaging as a biomarker in symptom validity and performance validity testing. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 9(3), 421–444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-015-9409-1
  • Boone, K. B. (2009). The need for continuous and comprehensive sampling of effort/response bias during neuropsychological examinations. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(4), 729–741. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040802427803
  • Boone, K. B. (2013). Clinical practice of forensic neuropsychology. Guilford Press.
  • Boskovic, I., Biermans, A. J., Merten, T., Jelicic, M., Hope, L., & Merckelbach, H. (2018). The Modified Stroop Task is susceptible to feigning: Stroop performance and symptom over-endorsement in feigned test anxiety. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1195–1197. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01195
  • Bowden, S. C., Shores, A. E., & Mathias, J. L. (2006). Does effort suppress cognition after traumatic brain injury? A re-examination of the evidence for the Word Memory Test. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 20(4), 858–872. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040500246935
  • Brandt, J., & Benedict, R. H. B. (2001). Hopkins Verbal Learning Test – Revised. Psychological Assessment Services.
  • Chafetz, M. (2011). Reducing the probability of false positives in malingering detection of Social Security disability claimants. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 25(7), 1239–1252. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2011.586785
  • Chafetz, M. D., Williams, M. A., Ben-Porath, Y. S., Bianchini, K. J., Boone, K. B., Kirkwood, M. W., Larrabee, G. J., & Ord, J. S. (2015). Official position of the American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology Social Security Administration policy on validity testing: Guidance and recommendations for change. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(6), 723–740. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2015.1099738
  • Cherner, M., Suarez, P., Lazzaretto, D., Artiola, i., Fortuny, L., Rivera Mindt, M., Dawes, S., Marcotte, T., Grant, I., Heaton, R., & The, H. g. (2007). Demographically corrected norms for the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test – Revised and Hopkins Verbal Learning Test – Revised in monolingual Spanish speakers from the U.S.–Mexico border region. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(3), 343–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.01.009
  • Curtis, K. L., Thompson, L. K., Greve, K. W., & Bianchini, K. J. (2008). Verbal fluency indicators of malingering in traumatic brain injury: Classification accuracy in known groups. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22(5), 930–945. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040701563591
  • Dandachi-FitzGerald, B., Merckelbach, H., & Ponds, R. W. H. M. (2017). Neuropsychologists' ability to predict distorted symptom presentation. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 39(3), 257–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2016.1223278
  • Davis, J. J. (2014). Further consideration of Advanced Clinical Solutions Word Choice: Comparison to the Recognition Memory Test-words and classification accuracy in a clinical sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(8), 1278–1294. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2014.975844
  • Delis, D. C., Kaplan, E. F., & Kramer, J. H. (2001). Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS): Technical manual. The Psychological Corporation.
  • Delis, D. C., Kramer, J. H., Kaplan, E., & Ober, B. (2000). The California Verbal Learning Test – second edition. The Psychological Corporation.
  • Denning, J. (2021). When 10 is enough: Errors on the first 10 items of the Test of Memory Malingering (TOMMe10) and administration time predict freestanding performance validity tests (PVTs) and underperformance on memory measures. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult. 28(1), 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2019.1588122
  • Denning, J. H. (2014). The efficiency and accuracy of the Test of Memory Malingering Trial 1, errors on the first 10 items of the Test of Memory Malingering, and five embedded measures in predicting invalid test performance. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(7), 729–730. https://doi.org/10.109/arclin/acu051
  • Dixon, R. A., Garrett, D. D., Lentz, T. L., MacDonald, S. W., Strauss, E., & Hultsch, D. F. (2007). Neurocognitive markers of cognitive impairment: Exploring the roles of speed and inconsistency. Neuropsychology, 21(3), 381–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.21.3.381
  • Donders, J., & Strong, C. H. (2015). Clinical utility of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition after traumatic brain injury. Assessment, 22(1), 17–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191114530776
  • Egeland, J., & Langfjaeran, T. (2007). Differentiating malingering from genuine cognitive dysfunction using the Trail Making Test – Ratio and Stroop interference scores. Applied Neuropsychology, 14(2), 113–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/09084280701319953
  • Eglit, G. M. L., Jurick, S. M., Delis, D. C., Filoteo, J. V., Bondi, M. W., & Jak, A. J. (2020). Utility of the D-KEFS Color Word Interference Test as an embedded measure of performance validity. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 34(2), 332–352. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2019.1643923
  • Erdal, K. (2004). The effects of motivation, coaching, and knowledge of neuropsychology on the simulated malingering of head injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19(1), 73–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6177(02)00214-7
  • Erdodi, L. A. (2019). Aggregating validity indicators: The salience of domain specificity and the indeterminate range in multivariate models of performance validity assessment. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult, 26(2), 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2017.1384925
  • Erdodi, L. A., & Abeare, C. A. (2020). Stronger together: The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition as a Multivariate Performance Validity Test in patients with traumatic brain injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 35(2), 188–204. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acz032/5613200
  • Erdodi, L. A., Abeare, C. A., Lichtenstein, J. D., Tyson, B. T., Kucharski, B., Zuccato, B. G., & Roth, R. M. (2017). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) processing speed scores as measures of noncredible responding: The third generation of embedded performance validity indicators. Psychological Assessment, 29(2), 148–157. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000319
  • Erdodi, L. A., Abeare, C. A., Medoff, B., Seke, K. R., Sagar, S., & Kirsch, N. L. (2018). A single error is one too many: The Forced Choice Recognition trial of the CVLT-II as a measure of performance validity in adults with TBI. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 33(7), 845–860. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acx110
  • Erdodi, L. A., Green, P., Sirianni, C., & Abeare, C. A. (2019). The myth of high false positive rates on the Word Memory Test in mild TBI. Psychological Injury and Law, 12(2), 155–169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-019-09356-8
  • Erdodi, L. A., Hurtubise, J. L., Charron, C., Dunn, A., Enache, A., McDermott, A., & Hirst, R. (2018). The D-KEFS Trails as performance validity tests. Psychological Assessment, 30(8), 1082–1095. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000561
  • Erdodi, L. A., Kirsch, N. L., Lajiness-O’Neill, R., Vingilis, E., & Medoff, B. (2014). Comparing the Recognition Memory Test and the Word Choice Test in a mixed clinical sample: Are they equivalent? Psychological Injury and Law, 7(3), 255–263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-014-9197-8
  • Erdodi, L. A., Kirsch, N. L., Sabelli, A. G., & Abeare, C. A. (2018). The Grooved Pegboard Test as a validity indicator – A study on psychogenic interference as a confound in performance validity research. Psychological Injury and Law, 11(4), 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-018-9337-7
  • Erdodi, L. A., & Lichtenstein, J. D. (2017). Invalid before impaired: An emerging paradox of embedded validity indicators. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(6–7), 1029–1046. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1323119
  • Erdodi, L. A., & Lichtenstein, J. D. (2021). Information processing speed tests as PVTs. In K. B. Boone (Ed.), Assessment of feigned cognitive impairment. A neuropsychological perspective. Guilford Press.
  • Erdodi, L. A., Lichtenstein, J. D., Rai, J. K., & Flaro, L. (2017). Embedded validity indicators in Conners’ CPT-II: Do adult cutoffs work the same way in children? Applied Neuropsychology. Child, 6(4), 355–363. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2016.1198908
  • Erdodi, L. A., Pelletier, C. L., & Roth, R. M. (2018). Elevations on select Conners' CPT-II scales indicate noncredible responding in adults with traumatic brain injury. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult, 25(1), 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2016.1232262
  • Erdodi, L. A., & Rai, J. K. (2017). A single error is one too many: Examining alternative cutoffs on Trial 2 of the TOMM. Brain Injury, 31(10), 1362–1368. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699052.2017.1332386
  • Erdodi, L. A., & Roth, R. M. (2017). Low scores on BDAE Complex Ideational Material are associated with invalid performance in adults without aphasia. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult, 24(3), 264–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2017.1298600
  • Erdodi, L. A., Roth, R. M., Kirsch, N. L., Lajiness-O'neill, R., & Medoff, B. (2014). Aggregating validity indicators embedded in Conners' CPT-II outperforms individual cutoffs at separating valid from invalid performance in adults with traumatic brain injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 29(5), 456–466. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acu026
  • Erdodi, L. A., Sagar, S., Seke, K., Zuccato, B. G., Schwartz, E. S., & Roth, R. M. (2018). The Stroop Test as a measure of performance validity in adults clinically referred for neuropsychological assessment. Psychological Assessment, 30(6), 755–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000525
  • Erdődi, L. A., Seke, K. R., Shahein, A., Tyson, B. T., Sagar, S., & Roth, R. M. (2017). Low scores on the Grooved Pegboard Test are associated with invalid responding and psychiatric symptoms. Psychology & Neuroscience, 10(3), 325–344. https://doi.org/10.1037/pne0000103
  • Erdodi, L. A., Taylor, B., Sabelli, A., Malleck, M., Kirsch, N. L., & Abeare, C. A. (2019). Demographically adjusted validity cutoffs in the Finger Tapping Test are superior to raw score cutoffs. Psychological Injury and Law, 12(2), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-019-09352-y
  • Erdodi, L. A., Tyson, B. T., Abeare, C. A., Lichtenstein, J. D., Pelletier, C. L., Rai, J. K., & Roth, R. M. (2016). The BDAE Complex Ideational Material – a measure of receptive language or performance validity? Psychological Injury and Law, 9(2), 112–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-016-9254-6
  • Erdodi, L. A., Tyson, B. T., Abeare, C. A., Zuccato, B. G., Rai, J. K., Seke, K. R., Sagar, S., & Roth, R. M. (2018). Utility of critical items within the Recognition Memory Test and Word Choice Test. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult, 25(4), 327–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2017.1298600
  • Erdodi, L. A., Tyson, B. T., Shahein, A., Lichtenstein, J. D., Abeare, C. A., Pelletier, C. L., Zuccato, B. G., Kucharski, B., & Roth, R. M. (2017). The power of timing: Adding a time-to-completion cutoff to the Word Choice Test and Recognition Memory Test improves classification accuracy. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 39(4), 369–383. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2016.1230181
  • Etherton, J. L., Bianchini, K. J., Heinly, M. T., & Greve, K. W. (2006). Pain, malingering, and performance on the WAIS-III Processing Speed Index. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28(7), 1218–1237. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390500346595
  • Fazio, R. L., Denning, J. H., & Denney, R. L. (2017). TOMM Trial 1 as a performance validity indicator in a criminal forensic sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(1), 251–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2016.1213316
  • Fuermaier, A. B. M., Tucha, O., Koerts, J., Grabski, M., Lange, K. W., Weisbrod, M., Aschenbrenner, S., & Tucha, L. (2016). The development of an embedded figures test for the detection of feigned attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adulthood. PLOS One, 11(10), e0164297. https://doi.org/10.1037/journal.pone.0164297
  • Fuermaier, A. B. M., Tucha, O., Koerts, J., Lange, K. W., Weisbrod, M., Aschenbrenner, S., & Tucha, L. (2017). Noncredible cognitive performance at clinical evaluation of adult ADHD: An embedded validity indicator in a visuospatial working memory test. Psychological Assessment, 29(12), 1466–1479. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000534
  • Gabel, N. M., Waldron-Perrine, B., Spencer, R. J., Pangilinan, P. H., Hale, A. C., & Bieliauskas, L. A. (2019). Suspiciously slow: Timed digit span as an embedded performance validity measure in a sample of veterans with mTBI. Brain Injury, 33(3), 377–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699052.2018.1553311
  • Giromini, L., Barbosa, F., Coga, G., Azeredo, A., Viglione, D., & Zennaro, A. (2020). Using the Inventory of Problems – 29 (IOP-29) with the Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) in symptom validity assessment: A study with a Portuguese sample of experimental feigners. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 27(6), 504–516. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2019.1570929
  • Goodglass, H., Kaplan, E., & Barresi, B. (2001). Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination (3rd ed.). Pro-Ed.
  • Green, P. (2004). Green’s Medical Symptom Validity Test. Green’s Publishing.
  • Greiffenstein, M. F., Baker, W. J., & Gola, T. (1994). Validation of malingered amnesia measures with a large clinical sample. Psychological Assessment, 6(3), 218–224.
  • Greve, K. W., Bianchini, K. J., & Doane, B. M. (2006). Classification accuracy of the Test of Memory Malingering in traumatic brain injury: Results of a known-group analysis. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28(7), 1176–1190. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390500263550
  • Greve, K. W., Bianchini, K. J., Mathias, C. W., Houston, R. J., & Crouch, J. A. (2002). Detecting malingered pain-related disability: Classification accuracy of the Test of Memory Malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 16(2), 179–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040902828272
  • Guise, B. J., Thompson, M. D., Greve, K. W., Bianchini, K. J., & West, L. (2014). Assessment of performance validity in the Stroop Color and Word Test in mild traumatic brain injury patients: A criterion-groups validation design. Journal of Neuropsychology, 8(1), 20–33. https://doi.org/10.1111/jnp.12002
  • Hall, V. L., Worthington, A., & Venables, K. (2014). A UK pilot study: The specificity of the Word Memory Test effort sub‐tests in acute minimal to mild head injury. Journal of Neuropsychology, 8(2), 216–230. https://doi.org/10.1111/jnp.12021
  • Heaton, R. K., Miller, S. W., Taylor, M. J., & Grant, I. (2004). Revised comprehensive norms for an expanded Halstead-Reitan battery: Demographically adjusted neuropsychological norms for African American and Caucasian adults. Psychological Assessment Resources.
  • Heaton, R. K., Smith, H. H., Lehman, R. A., & Vogt, A. T. (1978). Prospects for faking believable deficits on neuropsychological testing. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46(5), 892–900. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.46.5.892
  • Hurtubise, J., Baher, T., Messa, I., Cutler, L., Shahein, A., Hastings, M., Carignan-Querqui, M., & Erdodi, L. (2020). Verbal fluency and Digit Span variables as performance validity indicators in experimentally induced malingering and real world patients with TBI. Applied Neuropsychology. Child, 9(4), 337–354. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2020.1719409
  • Inman, T. H., & Berry, D. T. R. (2002). Cross-validation of indicators of malingering: A comparison of nine neuropsychological tests, four tests of malingering, and behavioral observations. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 17(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6177(00)00073-1
  • Jelicic, M., Ceunen, E., Peters, M. J., & Merckelbach, H. (2011). Detecting coached feigning using the Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) and the Structured Inventory of Malingered Symptomatology (SIMS). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67(9), 850–855. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20805
  • Jones, A. (2013). Test of Memory Malingering: Cutoff scores for psychometrically defined malingering groups in a military sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 27(6), 1043–1059. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2013.804949
  • Kim, N., Boone, K. B., Victor, T., Lu, P., Keatinge, C., & Mitchell, C. (2010). Sensitivity and specificity of a digit symbol recognition trial in the identification of response bias. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 25(5), 420–428. https://doi.org/10.1903/arclin/acq040
  • Kim, M. S., Boone, K. B., Victor, T., Marion, S. D., Amano, S., Cottingham, M. E., Ziegler, E. A., & Zeller, M. A. (2010). The Warrington Recognition Memory Test for words as a measure of response bias: Total score and response time cutoffs developed on “real world” credible and noncredible subjects. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 25(1), 60–70. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acp088
  • Kosky, K. M., Lace, J. W., Austin, T. A., Seitz, D. J., & Clark, B. (2020). The utility of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, 64-card Version to detect noncredible attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult. Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2020.1864633
  • Kulas, J. F., Axelrod, B. N., & Rinaldi, A. R. (2014). Cross-validation of supplemental Test of Memory Malingering Scores as performance validity measures. Psychological Injury and Law, 7(3), 236–244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-014-9200-4
  • Kura, K. (2013). Japanese north–south gradient in IQ predicts differences in stature, skin color, income, and homicide rate. Intelligence, 41(5), 512–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2013.07.001
  • Lace, J. W., Grant, A. F., Kosky, K. M., Teague, C. L., Lowell, K. T., & Gfeller, J. D. (2020). Identifying novel embedded performance validity test formulas within the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status: A simulation study. Psychological Injury and Law, 13(3), 303–315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-020-09382-x
  • Lace, J. W., Grant, A. F., Ruppert, P., Kaufman, D. A. S., Lowell, K. T., Teague, C. L., & Gfeller, J. D. (2019). Detecting noncredible performance with the Neuropsychological Assessment Battery: A simulation study. The Clinical Neuropsychologist. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2019.1694703
  • Lafayette Instrument. (2015). Grooved Pegboard user manual. Lafayette Instrument Company.
  • Lange, R. T., Iverson, G. L., Brickell, T. A., Staver, T., Pancholi, S., Bhagwat, A., & French, L. M. (2013). Clinical utility of the Conners' Continuous Performance Test-II to detect poor effort in U.S. military personnel following traumatic brain injury. Psychological Assessment, 25(2), 339–352. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030915
  • Larrabee, G. J. (2003). Detection of malingering using atypical performance patterns on standard neuropsychological tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 17(3), 410–425. https://doi.org/10.1076/clin.17.3.410.18089
  • Larrabee, G. J. (2012). Assessment of malingering. In G. J. Larrabee (Ed.), Forensic neuropsychology: A scientific approach (2nd ed., pp. 116–159). Oxford University Press.
  • Larrabee, G. J. (2014a). False-positive rates associated with the use of multiple performance and symptom validity tests. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 29(4), 364–373. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acu019
  • Larrabee, G. J. (2014b). Minimizing false positive error with multiple performance validity tests: Response to Bilder, Sugar, and Hellemann (2014 this issue). The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(8), 1230–1242. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2014.988754
  • León, F. R., & León, A. B. (2014). Why complex cognitive ability increases with absolute latitude. Intelligence, 46, 291–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2014.07.011
  • Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., Bigler, E. D., & Tranel, D. (2012). Neuropsychological assessment (5th ed., pp. 830–862). Oxford University Press.
  • Lichtenstein, J. D., Erdodi, L. A., & Linnea, K. S. (2017). [Formula: see text] Introducing a forced-choice recognition task to the California Verbal Learning Test – Children's Version. Child Neuropsychology: A Journal on Normal and Abnormal Development in Childhood and Adolescence, 23(3), 284–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2015.1135422
  • Lichtenstein, J. D., Erdodi, L. A., Rai, J. K., Mazur-Mosiewicz, A., & Flaro, L. (2018). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test embedded validity indicators developed for adults can be extended to children. Child Neuropsychology, 24(2), 247–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2016.1259402
  • Lichtenstein, J. D., Flaro, L., Baldwin, F., Rai, J. K., & Erdodi, L. A. (2019). Further evidence for embedded Performance Validity Tests in Children within the Conners' Continuous Performance Test – Second Edition. Developmental Neuropsychology, 44(2), 159–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2019.1565536
  • Lichtenstein, J. D., Greenacre, M. K., Cutler, L., Abeare, K., Baker, S. D., Kent, K. J., Ali, S., & Erdodi, L. A. (2019). Geographic variation and instrumentation artifacts: In search of confounds in performance validity assessment in adults with mild TBI. Psychological Injury and Law, 12(2), 127–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-019-09354-w
  • Lichtenstein, J. D., Holcomb, M., & Erdodi, L. A. (2018). One-minute PVT: Further evidence for the utility of the California Verbal Learning Test – Children’s version Forced Choice Recognition trial. Journal of Pediatric Neuropsychology, 4(3–4), 94–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40817-018-0057-4
  • Lippa, S. M. (2018). Performance validity testing in neuropsychology: A clinical guide, critical review, and update on a rapidly evolving literature. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 32(3), 391–421. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1406146
  • Lupu, T., Elbaum, T., Wagner, M., & Braw, Y. (2018). Enhanced detection of feigned cognitive impairment using per item response time measurements in the Word Memory Test. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult, 25(6), 532–542. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2017.1341410
  • Lynn, R. (2010). In Italy, north–south differences in IQ predict differences in income, education, infant mortality, stature, and literacy. Intelligence, 38(1), 93–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2009.07.004
  • Marshall, P., Schroeder, R., O'Brien, J., Fischer, R., Ries, A., Blesi, B., & Barker, J. (2010). Effectiveness of symptom validity measures in identifying cognitive and behavioral symptom exaggeration in adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 24(7), 1204–1237. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2010.514290
  • Martin, P. K., Schroeder, R. W., & Odland, A. P. (2015). [Formula: see text] Neuropsychologists' validity testing beliefs and practices: A survey of North American professionals. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(6), 741–746. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2015.1087597
  • Martin, P. K., Schroeder, R. W., Olsen, D. H., Maloy, H., Boettcher, A., Ernst, N., & Okut, H. (2020). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the Test of Memory Malingering in adults: Two decades of deception detection. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 34(1), 88–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2019.1637027
  • McDaniel, M. A. (2006). Estimating state IQ: Measurement challenges and preliminary correlates. Intelligence, 34(6), 607–619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.08.007
  • Merten, T., Green, P., Henry, M., Blaskewitz, N., & Brockhaus, R. (2005). Analog validation of German-language symptom validity tests and the influence of coaching. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 20(6), 719–726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2005.04.004
  • Merten, T., & Rogers, R. (2017). An international perspective on feigned mental disabilities: Conceptual issues and continuing controversies. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 35(2), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2274
  • Mittenberg, W., Patton, C., Canyock, E. M., & Condit, D. C. (2002). Base rates of malingering and symptom exaggeration. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24(8), 1094–1102. https://doi.org/10.1076/jcen.24.8.1094.8379
  • Moser, R. S., & Schatz, P. (2002). Enduring effects of concussion in youth athletes. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 17(1), 91–100. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/17.1.91
  • Odland, A. P., Lammy, A. B., Martin, P. K., Grote, C. L., & Mittenberg, W. (2015). Advanced administration and interpretation of multiple validity tests. Psychological Injury and Law, 8(1), 46–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-015-9216-4
  • Ord, A. S., Miskey, H. M., Lad, S., Richter, B., Nagy, K., & Shura, R. D. (2020). Examining embedded validity indicators in Conners Continuous Performance Test-3 (CPT-3). The Clinical Neuropsychologist. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2020.1751301
  • Pearson. (2009). Advanced clinical solutions for the WAIS-IV and WMS-IV: Technical manual. The Psychological Corporation.
  • Powell, M. R., Gfeller, J. D., Hendricks, B. L., & Sharland, M. (2004). Detecting symptom- and test-coached simulators with the test of memory malingering. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 19(5), 693–702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2004.04.001
  • Rai, J., An, K. Y., Charles, J., Ali, S., & Erdodi, L. A. (2019). Introducing a forced choice recognition trial to the Rey Complex Figure Test. Psychology & Neuroscience, 12(4), 451–472. https://doi.org/10.1037/pne0000175
  • Rai, J., & Erdodi, L. (2019). The impact of criterion measures on the classification accuracy of TOMM-1. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 1–12. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2019.161.1613994
  • Reed, A. V. (1973). Speed-accuracy trade-off in recognition memory. Science, 181(4099), 574–576. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.181.4099.574
  • Reese, C. S., Suhr, J. A., & Riddle, T. L. (2012). Exploration of malingering indices in the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition Digit Span subtest. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 27(2), 176–181. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acr117
  • Reitan, R. M. (1958). The validity of the Trail Making Test as an indicator of organic brain damage. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 8(3), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1958.8.3.271
  • Resch, Z. J., Pham, A. T., Abramson, D. A., White, D. J., DeDios-Stern, S., Ovsiew, G. P., Castillo, L. R., & Soble, J. R. (2020). Examining independent and combined accuracy of embedded performance validity tests in the California Verbal Learning Test-II and Brief Visuospatial Memory Test-Revised for detecting invalid performance. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2020.1742718
  • Rose, F., Hall, S., Szalda-Petree, A., & Bach, P. (1998). A comparison of four tests of malingering and the effects of coaching. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 13(4), 349–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6177(97)00025-5
  • Roth, R. M., Gioia, G. A., & Isquith, P. K. (2005). BRIEF-A: Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function – adult version. PAR.
  • Rüsseler, J., Brett, A., Klaue, U., Sailer, M., & Münte, T. F. (2008). The effect of coaching on the simulated malingering of memory impairment. BMC Neurology, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2377-8-37
  • Sawyer, R. J., Testa, S. M., & Dux, M. (2017). Embedded performance validity tests within the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test - Revised and the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test – Revised. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(1), 207–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2016.1245787
  • Schroeder, R. W., Martin, P. K., Heinrichs, R. J., & Baade, L. E. (2019). Research methods in performance validity testing studies: Criterion grouping approach impacts study outcomes. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 33(3), 466–477. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2018.1484517
  • Schroeder, R. W., Olsen, D. H., & Martin, P. K. (2019). Classification accuracy rates of four TOMM validity indices when examined independently and jointly. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 33(8), 1373–1387. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2019.1619839
  • Schutte, C., Axelrod, B. N., & Montoya, E. (2015). Making sure neuropsychological data are meaningful: Use of performance validity testing in medicolegal and clinical contexts. Psychological Injury and Law, 8(2), 100–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-015-9225-3
  • Shura, R. D., Brearly, T. W., Rowland, J. A., Martindale, S. L., Miskey, H. M., & Duff, K. (2018). RBANS validity indices: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychology Review, 28(3), 269–284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-018-9377-5
  • Shura, R. D., Miskey, H. M., Rowland, J. A., Yoash-Gantz, R. E., & Denning, J. H. (2016). Embedded performance validity measures with postdeployment veterans: Cross-validation and efficiency with multiple measures. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult, 23(2), 94–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2015.1014556
  • Soble, J. R., Alverson, W. A., Phillips, J. I., Critchfield, E. A., Fullen, C., O’Rourke, J. J. F., Messerly, J., Highsmith, J. M., Bailey, K. C., Webber, T. A., & Marceaux, J. C. (2020). Strength in numbers or quality over quantity? Examining the importance of criterion measure selection to define validity groups in performance validity test (PVT) research. Psychological Injury and Law, 13(1), 44–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-019-09370-w
  • Soble, J. R., Bain, K. M., Bailey, K. C., Kirton, J. W., Marceaux, J. C., Critchfield, E. A., McCoy, K. J. M., & O’Rourke, J. J. F. (2019). Evaluating the accuracy of the Wechsler Memory Scale-Fourth Edition (WMS-IV) logical memory embedded validity index for detecting invalid test performance. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 26(4), 311–318. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2017.1418744
  • Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., & Williams, J. B. (1999). Validation and utility of a self-report version of PRIME-MD: The PHQ primary care study. JAMA, 282(18), 1737–1744. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.282.18.1737
  • Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B., & Löwe, B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: The GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(10), 1092–1097. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092
  • Stevens, A., Bahlo, S., Licha, C., Liske, B., & Vossler-Thies, E. (2016). Reaction time as an indicator of insufficient effort: Development and validation of an embedded performance validity parameter. Psychiatry Research, 245, 74–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.08.022
  • Stevens, A., Friedel, E., Mehren, G., & Merten, T. (2008). Malingering and uncooperativeness in psychiatric and psychological assessment: Prevalence and effects in a German sample of claimants. Psychiatry Research, 157(1–3), 191–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2007.01.003
  • Strutt, A. M., Scott, B. M., Shrestha, S., & York, M. K. (2011). The Rey 15-Item Memory Test and Spanish-speaking older adults. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 25(7), 1253–1265. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2011.609839
  • Sugarman, M. A., & Axelrod, B. N. (2015). Embedded measures of performance validity using verbal fluency tests in a clinical sample. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult, 22(2), 141–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2013.873439
  • Suhr, J. A., & Boyer, D. (1999). Use of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in the detection of malingering in student simulator and patient samples. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 21(5), 701–708. https://doi.org/10.1076/jcen.21.5.701.868
  • Suhr, J. A., & Gunstad, J. (2000). The effects of coaching on the sensitivity and specificity of malingering measures. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 15(5), 415–424. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/15.5.415
  • Suhr, J. A., & Gunstad, J. (2007). Coaching and malingering: A review. In G. J. Larrabbe (Ed.), Assessment of malingered neuropsychological deficits (pp. 287–311). Oxford University Press.
  • Sullivan, K., & King, J. (2010). Detecting faked psychopathology: A comparison of two tests to detect malingered psychopathology using a simulation design. Psychiatry Research, 176(1), 75–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2008.07.013
  • Tan, J. E., Slick, D. J., Strauss, E., & Hultsch, D. F. (2002). How'd they do it? Malingering strategies on symptom validity tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 16(4), 495–505. https://doi.org/10.1076/clin.16.4.495.13909
  • Tombaugh, T. N. (1996). Test of memory malingering. Multi-Health Systems.
  • Trueblood, W. (1994). Qualitative and quantitative characteristics of malingered and other invalid WAIS-R and clinical memory data. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 16(4), 597–607. https://doi.org/10.1080/01688639408402671
  • van Helvoort, D., Merckelbach, H., & Merten, T. (2019). The Self-Report Symptom Inventory (SRSI) is sensitive to instructed feigning, but not to genuine psychopathology in male forensic inpatients: An initial study. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 33(6), 1069–1082. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2018.1559359
  • Victor, T. L., Boone, K. B., Serpa, J. G., Buehler, J., & Ziegler, E. A. (2009). Interpreting the meaning of multiple symptom validity test failure. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(2), 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040802232682
  • Webber, T., Bailey, K. C., Alverson, A., Critchfield, E., Bain, K., Messerly, J., O’Rourke, J., Kirton, J., Fullen, C., Marceaux, J., & Soble, J. (2018). Correction to: Further validation of the Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) trial 1 performance validity index: Examination of false positives and convergent validity. Psychological Injury and Law, 11(4), 325–335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-018-9338-6
  • Wechsler, D. (2008). Technical and interpretive manual for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Fourth Edition. Pearson.
  • Yonelinas, A. P., & Jacoby, L. L. (1994). Dissociations of processes in recognition memory: Effects of interference and of response speed. Revue Canadienne de Psychologie Experimentale [Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology], 48(4), 516–535. https://doi.org/10.1037/1196-1961.48.4.516
  • Young, G. (2015). Malingering in forensic disability-related assessments. Psychological Injury and Law, 8(3), 188–199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-015-9232-4
  • Zuccato, B. G., Tyson, B. T., & Erdodi, L. A. (2018). Early bird fails the PVT? The effects of timing artifacts on performance validity tests. Psychological Assessment, 30(11), 1491–1498. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000596

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.