The evolution of the third sector during the COVID-19 pandemic: Next generation diasporic civic organizations (DCOs) among Bangladeshis in Toronto

References

• Agrawal, S. K. (2013). Economic disparities among South Asian immigrants in Canada. South Asian Diaspora, 5(1), 7–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/19438192.2013.720514
   Google Scholar
• Al-Solaylee, K. (2016). Brown: What being brown in the world today means (to everyone). HarperCollins.
   Google Scholar
• Alexander, C., Chatterji, J., & Jalais, A. (2015). The Bengal diaspora: Rethinking Muslim migration. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Anisef, P., & Lanphier, C. M. (Eds.). (2003). The world in a city. University of Toronto Press.
   Google Scholar
• Antonsich, M. (2018). Living in diversity: Going beyond the local/national divide. Political Geography, 63, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2017.12.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ash, J., Kitchin, R., & Leszczynski, A. (2018). Digital turn, digital geographies? Progress in Human Geography, 42(1), 25–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132516664800
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Axel, B. K. (2005). Diasporic sublime: Sikh martyrs, Internet mediations, and the question of the unimaginable. Sikh Formations, 1(1), 127–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/17448720500132532
   Google Scholar
• Bernal, V. (2006). Diaspora, cyberspace and political imagination: the Eritrean diaspora online. Global Networks, 6(2), 161–179. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0374.2006.00139.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biekart, K., & Fowler, A. (2012). A civic agency perspective on change. Development, 55(2), 181–189. https://doi.org/10.1057/dev.2012.9
   Google Scholar
• Bloemraad, I., & Gleeson, S. (2012). Making the case for organizational presence: Civic inclusion, access to resources, and formal community organizations. In M. Smith & M. McQuarrie (Eds.), Remaking urban citizenship (pp. 109–134). Transaction Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Blunt, A. (2007). Cultural geographies of migration: Mobility, transnationality and diaspora. Progress in Human Geography, 31(5), 684–694. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132507078945
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boellstorff, T., Nardi, B., Pearce, C., & Taylor, T. L. (2012). Ethnography and virtual worlds. Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bork-Hüffer, T., & Yeoh, B. S. (2017). The geographies of difference in conflating digital and offline spaces of encounter: Migrant professionals’ throwntogetherness in Singapore. Geoforum, 86, 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.09.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brah, A. (1996). Cartographies of diaspora: Contesting identities. Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brettell, C. B. (2006). Introduction: Global spaces/local places: Transnationalism, diaspora, and the meaning of home. Identities, 13(3), 327–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/10702890600837987
   Google Scholar
• Brinkerhoff, J. M. (2009). Digital diasporas: Identity and transnational engagement. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Butler, K. D. (2001). Defining diaspora, refining a discourse. Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies, 10(2), 189–219. https://doi.org/10.1353/dsp.2011.0014
   Google Scholar
• Certomà, C. (2021). Digital social innovation in the city: In search of a critical perspective. In Digital social innovation (pp. 33–64). Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Chaliand, G., & Rageau, J. P. (1995). The penguin atlas of diasporas, trans. AM Berrett. New York, Viking Penguin, 1.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, X. (2021). Immigrant-owned small businesses’ participation in diaspora philanthropy: A case study during the COVID-19 outbreak. New England Journal of Entrepreneurship, 24(2), 105–121. https://doi.org/10.1108/NEJE-08-2020-0033
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, R. (1997). Global diasporas: An introduction. UC London Press.
   Google Scholar
• Collins, S., Neysmith, S., & Porter, E., Reitsma-Street, M. (2009). Women’s provisioning work: Counting the cost for women living on low income. Community, Work & Family, 12(1), 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668800802009422
   Google Scholar
• Crul, M. (2016). Super-diversity vs. assimilation: How complex diversity in majority–minority cities challenges the assumptions of assimilation. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 42(1), 54–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2015.1061425
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Defourny, J., & Develtere, P. (2009). The Social Economy: The Worldwide Making of a Third Sector.
   Google Scholar
• DeVault, M. L. (2006). Introduction: What is institutional ethnography. Social Problems, 53(3), 294. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2006.53.3.294
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeVerteuil, G. (2015). Resilience in the post-welfare inner city: Voluntary sector geographies in London, Los Angeles and Sydney. Policy Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dickinson, J. (2020). Visualising the foreign and the domestic in diaspora diplomacy: Images and the online politics of recognition in #givingtoindia. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 33(5), 752–777. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2020.1741512
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falzon, M. A. (2003). ‘Bombay, our cultural heart’: Rethinking the relation between homeland and diaspora. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 26(4), 662–683.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farrugia, C. (2020). Making sharing work: Migrant community groups and informal/formal work. Critical Sociology, 46(4–5), 495–509. https://doi.org/10.1177/0896920519864147
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer, C. (2018). Reframing transnational engagement: A relational analysis of Afghan diasporic groups. Global Networks, 18(3), 399–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/glob.12186
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forrest, T. M., & Brown, L. A. (2014). Organization‐led migration, individual choice, and refugee resettlement in the US: Seeking regularities. Geographical Review, 104(1), 10–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1931-0846.2014.12002.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia, A. C., Standlee, A. I., Bechkoff, J., & Cui, Y. (2009). Ethnographic approaches to the internet and computer-mediated communication. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 38(1), 52–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241607310839
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garkisch, M., Heidingsfelder, J., & Beckmann, M. (2017). Third sector organizations and migration: A systematic literature review on the contribution of third sector organizations in view of flight, migration and refugee crises. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 28(5), 1839–1880. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-017-9895-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghosh, S. (2013). ‘Am I a South Asian, really?’ Constructing ‘South Asians’ in Canada and being South Asian in Toronto. South Asian Diaspora, 5(1), 35–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/19438192.2013.724913
   Google Scholar
• Gibson-Graham, J. K. (2008). Diverse economies: Performative practices forother worlds’. Progress in Human Geography, 32(5), 613–632. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132508090821
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilroy, P. (1993). The black Atlantic: Modernity and double consciousness. Verso.
   Google Scholar
• Glick Schiller, N., & Çaglar, A. (2008). Migrant incorporation and city scale: Towards a theory of locality in migration studies. Malmö Institute for Studies of Migration, Diversity and Welfare (MIM) and Department of International Migration and Ethnic Relations (IMER). Malmö University.
   Google Scholar
• Godwin, M. (2018). Winning, Westminster-style: Tamil diaspora interest group mobilisation in Canada and the UK. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(8), 1325–1340. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1354160
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenberg, J., & MacAulay, M. (2009). NPO 2.0? Exploring the web presence of environmental nonprofit organizations in Canada. Global Media Journal, 2(1), 63–88.
   Google Scholar
• Greenleaf, J. (2016). Nonprofit use of social media: Insights from the field. Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice, 7(3). https://doi.org/10.7728/0703201603
   Google Scholar
• Grossberg, L. (1996). Identity and cultural studies: Is that all there is? In S. Hall & P. Gay (Eds.), Questions of cultural identity (pp. 87–107). Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446221907
   Google Scholar
• Guo, S., & Guo, Y. (2011). Multiculturalism, ethnicity and minority rights: The complexity and paradox of ethnic organizations in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 43(1), 59–80. https://doi.org/10.1353/ces.2011.0023
   Google Scholar
• Halder, R. (2012). Immigration and identity negotiation within the Bangladeshi immigrant community in Toronto, Canada. University of Manitoba (Canada).
   Google Scholar
• Hall, S. M. (2017). Mooring “super-diversity” to a brutal migration milieu. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 40(9), 1562–1573. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2017.1300296
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hess, M., & Korf, B. (2014). Tamil diaspora and the political spaces of second-generation activism in Switzerland. Global Networks, 14(4), 419–437. https://doi.org/10.1111/glob.12052
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hetland, P., & Mørch, A. I. (2016). Ethnography for investigating the Internet. In Seminar. net: Media, technology and lifelong learning (Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 1–14). Høgskolen i Lillehammer.
   Google Scholar
• Horst, C. (2018). Making a difference in Mogadishu? Experiences of multi-sited embeddedness among diaspora youth. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(8), 1341–1356. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1354161
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Islam, F., Sultana, A., Qasim, S., Kozak, M., Tamim, H., & Khanlou, N. (2019). “Children are going on a different path”: Youth identity from the Bangladeshi immigrant parents’ perspective. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 19(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-019-00148-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jindal, R. M., Baines, L. S., & Mehjabeen, D. (2023). Reimagining diaspora diplomacy during the COVID-19 crisis in India. International Health, 15(1), 93–100. https://doi.org/10.1093/inthealth/ihac019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karim, K. H. (1998). From ethnic media to global media: Transnational communication networks among diasporic communities. University of Oxford. Transnational Communities Programme.
   Google Scholar
• Kastoryano, R. (1999). Muslim diaspora (s) in Western Europe. The South Atlantic Quarterly, 98(1/2), 191. https://doi.org/10.1215/00382876-98-1/2-191
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, P. F. (2014). Understanding intergenerational social mobility. desLibris.
   Google Scholar
• Kissane, R. J. (2010). “We call it the badlands”: How social-spatial geographies influence social service use. Social Service Review, 84(1), 3–28. https://doi.org/10.1086/652988
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleist, N. (2014). Understanding diaspora organisations in European development cooperation–approaches, challenges and ways ahead. New Diversities, 16(2), 55–69.
   Google Scholar
• Kobayashi, A., & Preston, V. (2007). Transnationalism through the life course: Hong Kong immigrants in Canada. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 48(2), 151–167. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2007.00338.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kok, S., & Rogers, R. (2017). Rethinking migration in the digital age: Transglocalization and the Somali diaspora. Global Networks, 17(1), 23–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/glob.12127
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kozinets, R. (2010). Netnography: Doing ethnographic research online. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Ku, J. (2011). Ethnic activism and multicultural politics in immigrant settlement in Toronto, Canada. Social Identities, 17(2), 271–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2010.524785
   Google Scholar
• Levitt, P. (2001). Transnational migration: Taking stock and future directions. Global Networks, 1(3), 195–216. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0374.00013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levitt, P., & Schiller, N. G. (2004). Conceptualizing simultaneity: A transnational social field perspective on society 1. International Migration Review, 38(3), 1002–1039. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2004.tb00227.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy, K. (2023). Mancunian Chinese diaspora organisations’ response to covid-19–Studying the societal actors’ perspective on collaborative governance in crisis. Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 18681026231160799, 186810262311607. https://doi.org/10.1177/18681026231160799
   Google Scholar
• Lowe, S., Richmond, T., & Shields, J. (2017). Settling on austerity: ISAs, immigrant communities and neoliberal restructuring. Alternate Routes: A Journal of Critical Social Research, 28, 14–40.
   Google Scholar
• Martin, N. (2014). Spaces of hidden labor: Migrant women and work in nonprofit organizations. Gender, Place & Culture, 21(1), 17–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2012.759908
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meissner, F., & Vertovec, S. (2015). Comparing super-diversity. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 38(4), 541–555. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2015.980295
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell, K., Jones, R., & Fluri, J. L. (Eds.). (2019). Handbook on critical geographies of migration. Edward Elgar Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Moya, J. C. (2005). Immigrants and associations: A global and historical perspective. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 31(5), 833–864. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691830500178147
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ong’ayo, A. (2019). Diaspora Organisations, Transnational Practices and Development: Ghanaians in the Netherlands.
   Google Scholar
• Ponzanesi, S. (2020). Digital diasporas: Postcoloniality, media and affect. Interventions, 22(8), 977–993. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369801X.2020.1718537
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rai, R., & Reeves, P. (Eds.). (2008). The South Asian diaspora: Transnational networks and changing identities. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Ramakrishnan, S. K., & Bloemraad, I. (Eds.). (2008). Civic hopes and political realities: Immigrants, community organizations, and political engagement. Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Rouf, T. (2020). Toronto’s Bangla Town and the employment and educational experiences of bangladeshi-canadian youth. Journal for Worldwide Holistic Sustainable Development, 5(2), 14–48.
   Google Scholar
• Rubyan-Ling, D. (2019). Diaspora mobilization and the politics of loyalty in the time of Ebola: Evidence from the Sierra Leonean diaspora in the UK. Global Networks, 19, 218–237. https://doi.org/10.1111/glob.12213
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rybas, N., & Gajjala, R. (2007, September). Developing cyberethnographic research methods for understanding digitally mediated identities. Qualitative Social Research, 8(3), 35. https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-8.3.282
   Google Scholar
• Sahoo, A. K., & Shome, A. (2021). Negotiating identity in the diaspora: The role of South Asian youth organizations. South Asian Diaspora, 13(1), 99–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/19438192.2020.1767958
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shuva, N. Z. (2021). Internet, Social Media, and Settlement: A Study on Bangladeshi Immigrants in Canada/Internet, médias sociaux, et établissement: une étude des immigrants bangladais au Canada. The Canadian Journal of Information and Library Science, 43(3), 291–315.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Statistics Canada. (2021). Table 36-10-0650-01 Employment in the non-profit sector by type of worker. https://doi.org/10.25318/3610065001-eng
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Canada. (2022a). Immigrants make up the largest share of the population in over 150 years and continue to shape who we are as Canadians. The Daily. Retrieved December 02, 2023, from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/daily-quotidien/221026/dq221026a-eng.pdf?st=6eB-foSJ
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Canada. (2022b). Table 14-10-0340-01 Employee wages by occupation, annual, 1997 to 2022, inactive. https://doi.org/10.25318/1410034001-eng
   Google Scholar
• Tölölyan, K. (2010). Beyond the homeland: From exilic nationalism to diasporic transnationalism. In A. Gall, A. S. Leoussi, & A. D. Smith (Eds.), The call of the homeland: Diaspora nationalisms, past and present (9th ed., pp. 27–46). University of College London Press.
   Google Scholar
• Van Hear, N. (1998). New diasporas: The mass exodus. Dispersal and Regrouping Of.
   Google Scholar
• Vertovec, S. (1999). Conceiving and researching transnationalism. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22(2), 447–462. https://doi.org/10.1080/014198799329558
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vertovec, S. (2004). Migrant transnationalism and modes of transformation 1. International Migration Review, 38(3), 970–1001. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2004.tb00226.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeritsian, G. (2018). ‘Capitalism 2.0’: Web 2.0 manifestoes and the new spirit of capitalism. Critical Sociology, 44(4–5), 703–717. https://doi.org/10.1177/0896920517691109
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar