Psychological Distress in Treatment-Seeking University Students: An Intersectional Examination of Asian Identity and Gender Identity

References

• Abe-Kim, J., Takeuchi, D. T., Hong, S., Zane, N., Sue, S., Spencer, M. S., … Alegría, M. (2007). Use of mental health-related services among immigrant and US-born Asian Americans: Results from the National Latino and Asian American Study. American Journal of Public Health, 97(1), 91–98. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2006.098541
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angst, J., Gamma, A., Gastpar, M., Lépine, J.-P., Mendlewicz, J., & Tylee, A. (2002). Gender differences in depression. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 252(5), 201–209. doi:10.1007/s00406-002-0381-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.469
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baggio, S., Studer, J., Iglesias, K., Daeppen, J.-B., & Gmel, G. (2017). Emerging adulthood: A time of changes in psychosocial well-being. Evaluation & the Health Professions, 40(4), 383–400. doi:10.1177/0163278716663602
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowleg, L. (2012). The problem with the phrase women and minorities: Intersectionality—an important theoretical framework for public health. American Journal of Public Health, 102(7), 1267–1273. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.300750
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Call, J. B., & Shafer, K. (2018). Gendered manifestations of depression and help seeking among men. American Journal of Men’s Health, 12(1), 41–51. doi:10.1177/1557988315623993
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canadian postsecondary enrolments and graduates, 2017/2018. (2019).
   Google Scholar
• Chae, D. H., Lee, S., Lincoln, K. D., & Ihara, E. S. (2012). Discrimination, family relationships, and major depression among Asian Americans. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 14(3), 361–370. doi:10.1007/s10903-011-9548-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chu, J. P., & Sue, S. (2011). Asian American mental health: What we know and what we don’t know. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 3(1), 2307–2919. 1026. doi:10.9707/2307-0919.1026
   Google Scholar
• Conley, C. S., Kirsch, A. C., Dickson, D. A., & Bryant, F. B. (2014). Negotiating the transition to college: Developmental trajectories and gender differences in psychological functioning, cognitive- affective strategies, and social well-being. Emerging Adulthood, 2(3), 195–210. doi:10.1177/2167696814521808
   Google Scholar
• Conron, K. J., Mimiaga, M. J., & Landers, S. J. (2010). A population-based study of sexual orientation identity and gender differences in adult health. American Journal of Public Health, 100(10), 1953–1960. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2009.174169
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooke, R., Bewick, B. M., Barkham, M., Bradley, M., & Audin, K. (2006). Measuring, monitoring and managing the psychological well-being of first year university students. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 34(4), 505–517. doi:10.1080/03069880600942624
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crystal, D. (1989). Asian Americans and the myth of the model minority. Social Casework, 70(7), 405–413. doi:10.1177/104438948907000702
   Google Scholar
• Cyranowski, J. M., Frank, E., Young, E., & Shear, M. K. (2000). Adolescent onset of the gender difference in lifetime rates of major depression: A theoretical model. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57(1), 21–27. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.1.21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edgerton, J. D., Shaw, S., & Roberts, L. W. (2019). An exploration of depression symptom trajectories, and their predictors, in a Canadian sample of emerging adults. Emerging Adulthood, 7(5), 352–362. doi:10.1177/2167696818778632
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans, C. R., & Erickson, N. (2019). Intersectionality and depression in adolescence and early adulthood: A MAIHDA analysis of the national longitudinal study of adolescent to adult health, 1995–2008. Social Science & Medicine, 220, 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.10.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farmer, R. F., Kosty, D. B., Seeley, J. R., Duncan, S. C., Lynskey, M. T., Rohde, P., & Lewinsohn, P. M. (2015). Natural course of cannabis use disorders. Psychological Medicine, 45(1), 63–72. doi:10.1017/S003329171400107X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fortuna, L. R., Alegria, M., & Gao, S. (2010). Retention in depression treatment among ethnic and racial minority groups in the United States. Depression and Anxiety, 27(5), 485–494. doi:10.1002/da.20685
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox, K. R., Choukas-Bradley, S., Salk, R. H., Marshal, M. P., & Thoma, B. C. (2020). Mental health among sexual and gender minority adolescents: Examining interactions with race and ethnicity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 88(5), 402. doi:10.1037/ccp0000486
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuligni, A. J., Tseng, V., & Lam, M. (1999). Attitudes toward family obligations among American adolescents with Asian, Latin American, and European backgrounds. Child Development, 70(4), 1030–1044. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00075
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galambos, N. L., Barker, E. T., & Krahn, H. J. (2006). Depression, self-esteem, and anger in emerging adulthood: Seven-year trajectories. Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 350. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.350
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallo, E. A. G., Munhoz, T. N., de Mola, C. L., & Murray, J. (2018). Gender differences in the effects of childhood maltreatment on adult depression and anxiety: A systematic review and meta- analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 79, 107–114. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.01.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao, F. (2008). What it means to be a ‘model minority’: Voices of ethnic Koreans in Northeast China. Asian Ethnicity, 9(1), 55–67. doi:10.1080/14631360701803252
   Google Scholar
• Gupta, A., Szymanski, D. M., & Leong, F. T. (2011). The “model minority myth”: Internalized racialism of positive stereotypes as correlates of psychological distress, and attitudes toward help-seeking. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 2(2), 101. doi:10.1037/a0024183
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hahm, H. C., Gonyea, J. G., Chiao, C., & Koritsanszky, L. A. (2014). Fractured identity: A framework for understanding young Asian American women’s self-harm and suicidal behaviors. Race and Social Problems, 6(1), 56–68. doi:10.1007/s12552-014-9115-4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hahm, H. C., Ozonoff, A., Gaumond, J., & Sue, S. (2010). Perceived discrimination and health outcomes: A gender comparison among Asian-Americans nationwide. Women’s Health Issues, 20(5), 350–358. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2010.05.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hovey, J. D., Kim, S. E., & Seligman, L. D. (2006). The influences of cultural values, ethnic identity, and language use on the mental health of Korean American college students. The Journal of Psychology, 140(5), 499–511. doi:10.3200/JRLP.140.5.499-511
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsu, G., Wan, Y. M., Chang, H., Summergrad, P., Tsang, B. Y., & Chen, H. (2008). Stigma of depression is more severe in Chinese Americans than Caucasian Americans. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 71(3), 210–218. doi:10.1521/psyc.2008.71.3.210
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ihara, E. S., Chae, D. H., Cummings, J. R., & Lee, S. (2014). Correlates of mental health service use and type among Asian Americans. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 41(4), 543–551. doi:10.1007/s10488-013-0493-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, S. D., Mohr, J. J., Sarno, E. L., Kindahl, A. M., & Jones, I. L. (2020). Intersectional experiences, stigma-related stress, and psychological health among Black LGBQ individuals. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 88(5), 416–428. doi:10.1037/ccp0000489
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, P. J., Park, S. Y., & Lefevor, G. T. (2018). Contemporary college student anxiety: The role of academic distress, financial stress, and support. Journal of College Counseling, 21(3), 252–264. doi:10.1002/jocc.12107
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalibatseva, Z., & Leong, F. T. (2018). Cultural factors, depressive and somatic symptoms among Chinese American and European American college students. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49(10), 1556–1572. doi:10.1177/0022022118803181
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kearney, L. K., Draper, M., & Barón, A. (2005). Counseling utilization by ethnic minority college students. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 11(3), 272. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.11.3.272
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kendler, K. S., & Gardner, C. O. (2014). Sex differences in the pathways to major depression: A study of opposite-sex twin pairs. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(4), 426–435. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13101375
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, J. M., & López, S. R. (2014). The expression of depression in Asian Americans and European Americans. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 123(4), 754. doi:10.1037/a0038114
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, J. E., Park, S. S., La, A., Chang, J., & Zane, N. (2016). Counseling services for Asian, Latino/a, and White American students: Initial severity, session attendance, and outcome. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 22(3), 299. doi:10.1037/cdp0000069
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, H. J., Park, E., Storr, C. L., Tran, K., & Juon, H.-S. (2015). Depression among Asian-American adults in the community: Systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS one, 10(6), e0127760. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127760
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kornstein, S. G., Schatzberg, A. F., Thase, M. E., Yonkers, K. A., McCullough, J. P., Keitner, G. I., & Harrison, W. (2000). Gender differences in chronic major and double depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 60(1), 1–11. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(99)00158-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuo, B. C., Chong, V., & Joseph, J. (2008). Depression and its psychosocial correlates among older Asian immigrants in North America: A critical review of two decades’ research. Journal of Aging and Health, 20(6), 615–652. doi:10.1177/0898264308321001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert, M. J., Burlingame, G. M., Umphress, V., Hansen, N. B., Vermeersch, D. A., Clouse, G. C., & Yanchar, S. C. (1996). The reliability and validity of the Outcome Questionnaire. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy: An International Journal of Theory and Practice, 3(4), 249–258. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0879(199612)3:4%3C249:AID-CPP106%3E3.0.CO;2-S
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert, M. J., Gregersen, A. T., & Burlingame, G. M. (2004). The Outcome Questionnaire-45. In M. E. Maruish (Ed.), The use of psychological testing for treatment planning and outcomes assessment: Instruments for adults (pp. 191–234). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Lam, C. Y., Pepper, C. M., & Ryabchenko, K. A. (2004). Case identification of mood disorders in Asian American and Caucasian American college students. Psychiatric Quarterly, 75(4), 361–373. doi:10.1023/B:PSAQ.0000043511.13623.1b
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, M., Bhimla, A., Lu, W., & Ma, G. X. (2021). Correlates of mental health treatment receipt among Asian Americans with perceived mental health problems. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 48(2), 199–212. doi:10.1007/s11414-020-09704-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, S., Juon, H.-S., Martinez, G., Hsu, C. E., Robinson, E. S., Bawa, J., & Ma, G. X. (2009). Model minority at risk: Expressed needs of mental health by Asian American young adults. Journal of Community Health, 34(2), 144. doi:10.1007/s10900-008-9137-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leu, J., Schroth, C., Obradovic, J., & Cruz, R. A. (2012). Family assistance attitudes and family cultural conflict: A comparative study of second-generation Asian American and native-born European American emerging adults. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 3(3), 133. doi:10.1037/a0029636
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linden, B., & Stuart, H. (2020). Post-secondary stress and mental well-being: A scoping review of the academic literature. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, 39(1), 1–32. doi:10.7870/cjcmh-2020-002
   Google Scholar
• Liu, J., Liang, C. T., Nguyen, D., & Melo, K. (2019). A qualitative study of intergenerational cultural conflicts among second-generation Chinese Americans and Taiwanese Americans. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 10(1), 47–57. doi:10.1037/aap0000121
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lockard, A. J., Hayes, J. A., Graceffo, J. M., & Locke, B. D. (2013). Effective counseling for racial/ethnic minority clients: Examining changes using a practice research network. Journal of College Counseling, 16(3), 243–257. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1882.2013.00040.x
   Google Scholar
• Marcus, S. M., Young, E. A., Kerber, K. B., Kornstein, S., Farabaugh, A. H., Mitchell, J., & Rush, A. J. (2005). Gender differences in depression: Findings from the STAR* D study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 87(2–3), 141–150. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2004.09.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, L. A., Neighbors, H. W., & Griffith, D. M. (2013). The experience of symptoms of depression in men vs women: Analysis of the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(10), 1100–1106. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.1985
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masuda, A., Anderson, P. L., Twohig, M. P., Feinstein, A. B., Chou, -Y.-Y., Wendell, J. W., & Stormo, A. R. (2009). Help-seeking experiences and attitudes among African American, Asian American, and European American college students. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 31(3), 168–180. doi:10.1007/s10447-009-9076-2
   Google Scholar
• Masuda, A., & Boone, M. S. (2011). Mental health stigma, self-concealment, and help-seeking attitudes among Asian American and European American college students with no help-seeking experience. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 33(4), 266–279. doi:10.1007/s10447-011-9129-1
   Google Scholar
• McFarland, J., Hussar, B., Zhang, J., Wang, X., Wang, K., Hein, S., … Barmer, A. (2019). The condition of education 2019. NCES 2019-144. National Center for Education Statistics.
   Google Scholar
• Meyer, I. H. (1995). Minority stress and mental health in gay men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36(1), 38–56. doi:10.2307/2137286
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Museus, S. D., & Truong, K. A. (2009). Disaggregating qualitative data from Asian American college students in campus racial climate research and assessment. New Directions for Institutional Research, 2009(142), 17–26. doi:10.1002/ir.293
   Google Scholar
• Nazroo, J., Fenton, S., Karlsen, S., & O’Connor, W. (2002). Context, cause and meaning: Qualitative insights. Ethnic minority psychiatric illness rates in the community (EMPIRIC) (pp. 137–158). Norwich: National Centre for Social Research, London.
   Google Scholar
• Newman, J. L., Fuqua, D. R., Gray, E. A., & Simpson, D. B. (2006). Gender differences in the relationship of anger and depression in a clinical sample. Journal of Counseling & Development, 84(2), 157–162. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2006.tb00391.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okazaki, S. (1997). Sources of ethnic differences between Asian American and White American college students on measures of depression and social anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(1), 52. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.106.1.52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Otsuki, T. A. (2003). Substance use, self-esteem, and depression among Asian American adolescents. Journal of Drug Education, 33(4), 369–390. doi:10.2190/RG9R-V4NB-6NNK-37PF
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, Y. S., & Kim, B. S. (2008). Asian and European American cultural values and communication styles among Asian American and European American college students. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(1), 47. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.14.1.47
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perera, M. J., & Chang, E. C. (2015). Depressive symptoms in South Asian, East Asian, and European Americans: Evidence for ethnic differences in coping with academic versus interpersonal stress? Asian American Journal of Psychology, 6(4), 350. doi:10.1037/aap0000030
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phinney, J. S., & Alipuria, L. L. (1990). Ethnic identity in college students from four ethnic groups. Journal of Adolescence, 13(2), 171–183. doi:10.1016/0140-1971(90)90006-S
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pittman, L. D., & Richmond, A. (2008). University belonging, friendship quality, and psychological adjustment during the transition to college. The Journal of Experimental Education, 76(4), 343–362. doi:10.3200/JEXE.76.4.343-362
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Platt, J., Prins, S., Bates, L., & Keyes, K. (2016). Unequal depression for equal work? How the wage gap explains gendered disparities in mood disorders. Social Science & Medicine, 149, 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.11.056
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roisman, G. I., Masten, A. S., Coatsworth, J. D., & Tellegen, A. (2004). Salient and emerging developmental tasks in the transition to adulthood. Child Development, 75(1), 123–133. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00658.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruzek, N. A., Nguyen, D. Q., & Herzog, D. C. (2011). Acculturation, enculturation, psychological distress and help-seeking preferences among Asian American college students. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 2(3), 181. doi:10.1037/a0024302
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryder, A. G., Yang, J., Zhu, X., Yao, S., Yi, J., Heine, S. J., & Bagby, R. M. (2008). The cultural shaping of depression: Somatic symptoms in China, psychological symptoms in North America?. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117(2), 300.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Satcher, D. (2001). Mental health: Culture, race, and ethnicity—A supplement to mental health: A report of the surgeon general. US Department of Health and Human Services.
   Google Scholar
• Seehuus, M., Moeller, R. W., & Peisch, V. (2019). Gender effects on mental health symptoms and treatment in college students. Journal of American College Health, 1–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shadick, R., Dagirmanjian, F. B., & Barbot, B. (2015). Suicide risk among college student. Crisis, 36(6), 416–423. doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000340
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Statistics Canada. (2019). Canadian postsecondary enrolments and graduates, 2016/2017. Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca
   Google Scholar
• Toscos, T., Carpenter, M., Drouin, M., Roebuck, A., Kerrigan, C., & Mirro, M. (2018). College students’ experiences with, and willingness to use, different types of telemental health resources: Do gender, depression/anxiety, or stress levels matter? Telemedicine and e-Health, 24(12), 998–1005. doi:10.1089/tmj.2017.0243
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tummala-Narra, P., Alegria, M., & Chen, C.-N. (2012). Perceived discrimination, acculturative stress, and depression among South Asians: Mixed findings. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 3(1), 3. doi:10.1037/a0024661
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Twentyman, J., & Frank, M. (2017). Effects of race and ethnicity on mental health and help-seeking amongst undergraduate university students. Journal of Undergraduate Ethnic Minority Psychology, 3(6), 2332–9300.
   Google Scholar
• Uba, L. (1994). Psychopathology in the “Model Minority.”Asian Americans: Personality Patterns, Identity, and Mental Health, 2(1): 158–195. doi:10.1037/a0028769
   Google Scholar
• Wyatt, T. J., Oswalt, S. B., & Ochoa, Y. (2017). Mental health and academic performance of first-year college students. International Journal of Higher Education, 6(3), 178–187. doi:10.5430/ijhe.v6n3p178
   Google Scholar
• Yoon, J., & Lau, A. S. (2008). Maladaptive perfectionism and depressive symptoms among Asian American college students: Contributions of interdependence and parental relations. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(2), 92. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.14.2.92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, C. B., Fang, D. Z., & Zisook, S. (2010). Depression in Asian–American and Caucasian undergraduate students. Journal of Affective Disorders, 125(1–3), 379–382. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.02.124
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zagefka, H. (2009). The concept of ethnicity in social psychological research: Definitional issues. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(3), 228–241. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2008.08.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuckerman, M. (1990). Some dubious premises in research and theory on racial differences: Scientific, social, and ethical issues. American Psychologist, 45(12), 1297. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.45.12.1297
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar