3,046
Views
31
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Invited review

Stereopsis: are we assessing it in enough depth?

&
Pages 485-494 | Received 28 Jul 2017, Accepted 08 Dec 2017, Published online: 15 Apr 2021

REFERENCES

  • Tidbury LP, O'connor AR, Wuerger SM. Dynamic cues to binocular depth. Br Ir Orthopt J 2016; 13: 29–34.
  • Phillips CI. Personal view. BMJ 1987; 295: 1133.
  • Birch EE, O'connor AR. Chapter 72: Binocular vision. In: Lambert SR, Lyons CJ, eds. Taylor & Hoyt's Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus, 5th ed. Edinburgh: Elsevier, 2017. p. 746–753.
  • Daw NW. Visual Development. New York, NY: Springer, 2006.
  • Birch E, Petrig B. FPL and VEP measures of fusion, stereopsis and stereoacuity in normal infants. Vision Res 1996; 36: 1321–1327.
  • Ciner EB, Schanel‐klitsch E, Herzberg C. Stereoacuity development: 6 months to 5 years. A new tool for testing and screening. Optom Vis Sci 1996; 73: 43–48.
  • Birch E, Williams C, Drover J et al. Randot preschool stereoacuity test: normative data and validity. J AAPOS 2008; 12: 23–26.
  • Hug D. Management of infantile esotropia. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2015; 26: 371–374.
  • O'connor AR, Fawcett S, Stager DR et al. Factors influencing sensory outcome following surgical correction of infantile esotropia. Am Orthopt J 2002; 52: 69–74.
  • Simonsz HJ, Kolling GH. Best age for surgery for infantile esotropia. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2011; 15: 205–208.
  • Shin KH, Paik HJ. Factors influencing the development and severity of dissociated vertical deviation in patients with infantile esotropia. J AAPOS 2014; 18: 357–361.
  • Wong AMF, Foeller P, Bradley D et al. Early versus delayed repair of infantile strabismus in macaque monkeys: I. Ocular motor effects. J AAPOS 2003; 7: 200–209.
  • Speeg‐schatz C, Burgun P, Gottenkiene S. To what extent may botulinum toxin type A injections be an alternative choice to surgery in infantile esotropia? Eur J Ophthalmol 2017; 27: 285–288.
  • Mcneer KW, Tucker MG, Guerry CH et al. Incidence of stereopsis after treatment of infantile esotropia with botulinum toxin A. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 2003; 40: 288–292.
  • Issaho DC, Carvalho FRS, Tabuse MKU et al. The use of botulinum toxin to treat infantile esotropia: a systematic review with meta‐analysis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2017; 58: 5468–5476.
  • Simonz HJ, Kolling GH, Unnebrink K. Final report of the early vs. late infantile strabismus surgery study (ELISSS), a controlled, prospective, multicenter study. Strabismus 2005; 13: 169–199.
  • Lee DS, Kim SJ, Yu YS. The relationship between preoperative and postoperative near stereoacuities and surgical outcomes in intermittent exotropia. Br J Ophthalmol 2014; 98: 1398–1403.
  • Koc F, Sefi‐yurdakul N. Predictors of stereoacuity outcome in visually mature subjects with exotropia. Eye (Lond) 2016; 30: 264–269.
  • Leske DA, Holmes JM. Maximum angle of horizontal strabismus consistent with true stereopsis. J AAPOS 2004; 8: 28–34.
  • Howard HT. A test for the judgment of distance. Am J Ophthalmol 1919; 2: 656–675.
  • Kaye SB, Siddiqui A, Ward A et al. Monocular and binocular depth discrimination thresholds. Optom Vis Sci 1999; 76: 770–782.
  • Matsuo T, Negayama R, Sakata H et al. Correlation between depth perception by three‐rods test and stereoacuity by distance randot stereotest. Strabismus 2014; 22: 133–137.
  • Leske DA, Birch EE, Holmes JM. Real depth vs randot stereotests. Am J Ophthalmol 2006; 142: 699–701.
  • Costa MF, Moreira SMCF, Hamer RD et al. Effects of age and optical blur on real depth stereoacuity. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2010; 30: 660–666.
  • Arnoldi K, Frenkel A. Modification of the titmus fly test to improve accuracy. Am Orthopt J 2014; 64: 64–70.
  • De la cruz A, Morale SE, Jost RM et al. Modified test protocol improves sensitivity of the stereo fly test. Am Orthopt J 2016; 66: 122–125.
  • Van doorn LLA, Evans BJW, Edgar DF et al. Manufacturer changes lead to clinically important differences between two editions of the TNO stereotest. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2014; 34: 243–249.
  • Bosten JM, Goodbourn PT, Lawrance‐owen AJ et al. A population study of binocular function. Vis Res 2015; 110: 34–50.
  • Antona B, Barrio A, Barra F et al. Repeatability and agreement in the measurement of horizontal fusional vergences. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2008; 28: 475–491.
  • Garnham L, Sloper JJ. Effect of age on adult stereoacuity as measured by different types of stereotest. Br J Ophthalmol 2006; 90: 91–95.
  • Bohr I, Read JC. Stereoacuity with Frisby and revised FD2 stereo tests. PLoS One 2013; 8: e82999.
  • Ciner EB, Schanel‐klitsch E, Herzberg C. Stereoacuity development: 6 months to 5 years. A new tool for testing and screening. Optom Vis Sci 1996; 73: 43–48.
  • Anketell PM, Saunders KJ, Little JA. Stereoacuity norms for school‐age children using the frisby stereotest. J AAPOS 2013; 17: 582–587.
  • Ciner EB, Ying GS, Kulp MT et al. Stereoacuity of preschool children with and without vision disorders. Optom Vis Sci 2014; 91: 351–358.
  • Young BJ, Sueke H, Wylie JM et al. Contribution of a real depth distance stereoacuity test to clinical management. J Ophthalmol 2009; 2009: 343827.
  • Schmidt P. Vision screening with the RDE stereotest in pediatric populations. Optom Vis Sci 1994; 71: 273–281.
  • Vision in Preschoolers Study Group. Random dot E stereotest: testability and reliability in 3‐ to 5‐year‐old children. J AAPOS 2006; 10: 507–514.
  • Fawcett SL, Birch EE. Interobserver test‐restest reliability of the randot preschool stereoacuity test. J AAPOS 2000; 4: 354–358.
  • Simons K. Stereoacuity norms in young children. Arch Ophthalmol 1981; 99: 439–445.
  • Adams WE, Leske DA, Hatt SR et al. Defining real change in measures of stereoacuity. Ophthalmology 2009; 116: 281–285.
  • Adler P, Scally AJ, Barrett BT. Test–retest variability of randot stereoacuity measures gathered in an unselected sample of UK primary school children. Br J Ophthalmol 2012; 96: 656–661.
  • Fawcett SL, Birch EE. Interobserver test‐retest reliability of the randot preschool stereoacuity test. J AAPOS 2000; 4: 354–358.
  • Pai AS, Rose KA, Samarawickrama C et al. Testability of refraction, stereopsis, and other ocular measures in preschool children: the Sydney Paediatric Eye Disease Study. J AAPOS 2012; 16: 185–192.
  • Schmidt PP, Maguire MG, Moore B et al. Testability of preschoolers on stereotests used to screen vision disorders. Optom Vis Sci 2003; 80: 753–757.
  • Tarczy‐hornoch K, Lin J, Deneen J et al. Stereoacuity testability in African‐American and Hispanic pre‐school children. Optom Vis Sci 2008; 85: 158–163.
  • Huynh SC, Ojaimi E, Robaei D et al. Accuracy of the Lang II stereotest in screening for binocular disorders in 6‐year‐old children. Am J Ophthalmol 2005; 140: 1130–1132.
  • Ying GS, Kulp MT, Maguire M et al. Sensitivity of screening tests for detecting vision in preschoolers‐targeted vision disorders when specificity is 94%. Optom Vis Sci 2005; 82: 432–438.
  • Afsari S, Rose KA, Pai AS et al. Diagnostic reliability and normative values of stereoacuity tests in preschool‐aged children. Br J Ophthalmol 2013; 97: 308–313.
  • Levi DM, Knill DC, Bavelier D. Stereopsis and amblyopia: a mini‐review. Vision Res 2015; 114: 17–30.
  • Foss AJ. Use of video games for the treatment of amblyopia. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2017; 28: 276–281.
  • Hess RF, Mansouri B, Thompson B. A binocular approach to treating amblyopia: Antisuppression therapy. Optom Vis Sci 2010; 87: 697–704.
  • Knox PJ, Simmers AJ, Gray LS et al. An exploratory study: prolonged periods of binocular stimulation can provide an effective treatment for childhood amblyopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2012; 53: 817–824.
  • Vedamurthy I, Knill DC, Huang SJ et al. Recovering stereo vision by squashing virtual bugs in a virtual reality environment. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 2016; 371: 20150264.
  • Li J, Thompson B, Deng D et al. Dichoptic training enables the adult amblyopic brain to learn. Curr Biol 2013; 23: R308–R309.
  • Hess RF, Babu RJ, Clavagnier S et al. The iPod binocular home‐based treatment for amblyopia in adults: efficacy and compliance. Clin Exp Optom 2014; 97: 389–398.
  • Arnold RW, Davidson S, Madigan WP. Stereopsis and 3‐D movies. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 2011; 48: 199–201.
  • Blackwolf B. I Am Stereoblind, but the Oculus Rift is My Corrective Lens. Updated 2013. [Cited 10 Jan 2018.] Available at: http://www.vognetwork.com/rifting‐to‐a‐new‐reality/118/I‐Am‐Stereoblind‐But‐The‐Oculus‐Rift‐Is‐My‐Corrective‐Lens/
  • Child B. 3D Movie Improves Man's Vision after Lifetime of Impairment. Updated 2013. [Cited 10 Jan 2018.] Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/film/2013/jun/17/3d‐movie‐hugo‐improves‐mans‐vision
  • Kokoris G. I Am Stereoblind, but the 3DS Lets Me See the World as Others See It. Updated 2013. [Cited 10 Jan 2018.] Available at: http://kotaku.com/i-am-stereoblind-but-the-3ds-lets-me-see-the-world-as-484508038
  • Vishwanath D, Hibbard PB. Seeing in 3‐D with just one eye: stereopsis without binocular vision. Psychol Sci 2013; 24: 1673–1685.
  • Zanoni D, Rosenbaum AL. A new method for evaluating distance stereo acuity. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 1991; 28: 255–260.
  • Tidbury L, O'connor A. Clinical assessment of stereoacuity and the perception of stereoscopic entertainment media. Perception 2013; 42: 366.
  • Nefs HT, O'hare L, Harris JM. Two independent mechanisms for motion‐in‐depth perception: evidence from individual differences. Front Psychol 2010; 1: 155.
  • Nefs HT, Harris JM. What visual information is used for stereoscopic depth displacement discrimination? Perception 2010; 39: 727–744.
  • Brooks KR. Interocular velocity difference contributes to stereomotion speed perception. J Vis 2002; 2: 218–231.
  • Brooks KR, Stone LS. Stereomotion speed perception: contributions from both changing disparity and interocular velocity difference over a range of relative disparities. J Vis 2004; 4: 1061–1079.
  • Cumming B, Parker A. Binocular mechanisms for detecting motion‐in‐depth. Vision Res 1994; 34: 483–495.
  • Regan D, Beverley KI. Some dynamic features of depth perception. Vision Res 1973; 13: 2369–2379.
  • Tidbury LP, Brooks KR, O'connor AR et al. A systematic comparison of static and dynamic cues for depth perception. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2016; 57: 3545–3553.
  • Tai Y, Gowrisankaran S, Yang S et al. Depth perception from stationary and moving stereoscopic three‐dimensional images. Proc SPIE‐Int Soc Opt Eng 2013; 8648: doi: 10.1117/12.2005166.
  • Zinn WJ, Solomon H. A comparison of static and dynamic stereoacuity. J Am Optom Assoc 1985; 56: 712–715.
  • Weldon RJ, Slingerland DA, Myers JT. Induced stereoscopic motion as an aid in the search for tall targets. Hum Factors 1968; 10: 385–392.
  • Mollenhauer KA, Haase W. Preliminary report: dynamic stereopsis in patients with impaired binocular function. Strabismus 2000; 8: 275–281.
  • Fujikado T, Hosohata J, Ohmi G et al. Use of dynamic and colored stereogram to measure stereopsis in strabismic patients. Jpn J Ophthalmol 1998; 42: 101–107.
  • Watanabe Y, Kezuka T, Harasawa K et al. A new method for assessing motion‐in‐depth perception in strabismic patients. Br J Ophthalmol 2008; 92: 47–50.
  • Hess RF, Mansouri B, Thompson B et al. Latent stereopsis for motion in depth in strabismic amblyopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2009; 50: 5006–5016.
  • Kitaoji H, Toyama K. Preservation of position and motion stereopsis in strabismic subjects. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1987; 28: 1260–1267.
  • Julesz B. Binocular depth perception without familiarity cues. Science 1964; 145: 356–361.
  • Nityananda V, Read JCA. Stereopsis in animals: evolution, function and mechanisms. J Exp Biol 2017; 220: 2502–2512.
  • Ives HE. Airplane Photography. Philadelphia and London: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1920.
  • Godber G. Living with one eye. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1981; 282: 2042–2043.
  • Barry SR. Fixing My Gaze, 1st ed. New York, NY: Basic Books, 2009.
  • Newsham D, O'connor AR, Harrad RA. Incidence, risk factors and management of intractable diplopia. Br J Ophthalmol 2017; doi: 10.1136/bjophthalmol‐2017‐310454.
  • O'connor AR, Birch EE, Anderson S et al. The functional significance of stereopsis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2010; 51: 2019–2023.
  • Piano ME, O'connor AR. The effect of degrading binocular single vision upon fine motor skill task performance. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2013; 54: 8204–8213.
  • Buckley JG, Panesar GK, Maclellan MJ et al. Changes to control of adaptive gait in individuals with long‐standing reduced stereoacuity. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2010; 51: 2487–2495.
  • Ivers RQ, Norton R, Cumming RG et al. Visual impairment and hip fracture. Am J Epidemiol 2000; 7: 633–639.
  • Lord SR. Visual risk factors for falls in older people. Age Ageing 2006; 35 (Suppl 2): ii42–ii45.
  • Drover JR, Stager DR Sr, Morale SE et al. Improvement in motor development following surgery for infantile esotropia. J AAPOS 2008; 12: 136–140.
  • Salt A, Sargent J. Common visual problems in children with disability. Arch Dis Child 2014; 99: 1163–1168.
  • Grant S, Suttle C, Melmoth DR et al. Age‐ and stereovision‐dependent eye‐hand coordination deficits in children with amblyopia and abnormal binocularity. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2014; 55: 5687–57015.
  • Gnanaseelan R, Gonzalez DA, Niechwiej‐szwedo E. Binocular advantage for prehension movements performed in visually enriched environments requiring visual search. Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8: 959.
  • Melmoth DR, Finlay AL, Morgan MJ et al. Grasping deficits and adaptations in adults with stereo vision losses. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2009; 50: 3711–3720.
  • Nielsen LS, Skov L, Jensen H. Visual dysfunctions and ocular disorders in children with developmental delay. II. Aspects of refractive errors, strabismus and contrast sensitivity. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2007; 85: 419–426.
  • Donnelly UM, Stewart NM, Hollinger M. Prevalence and outcomes of childhood visual disorders. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 2005; 12: 243–250.
  • Han SB, Yang HK, Kim J et al. Quantification of stereopsis in patients with impaired binocularity. Optom Vis Sci 2016; 93: 588–593.
  • Wu H, Jin H, Sun Y et al. Evaluating stereoacuity with 3D shutter glasses technology. BMC Ophthalmol 2016; 16: 45.
  • Serrano‐pedraza I, Vancleef K, Read JC. Avoiding monocular artifacts in clinical stereotests presented on column‐interleaved digital stereoscopic displays. J Vis 2016; 16: 13.