850
Views
31
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Reviews

Current and prospective pharmacotherapy for autoimmune hepatitis

, MD

Bibliography

  • Manns MP, Czaja AJ, Gorham JD, et al. Diagnosis and management of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 2010;51:2193-213
  • Gleeson D, Heneghan MA. British Society of Gastroenterology (BSG) guidelines for management of autoimmune hepatitis. Gut 2011;60:1611-29
  • Cook GC, Mulligan R, Sherlock S. Controlled prospective trial of corticosteroid therapy in active chronic hepatitis. Q J Med 1971;40:159-85
  • Soloway RD, Summerskill WH, Baggenstoss AH, et al. Clinical, biochemical, and histological remission of severe chronic active liver disease: a controlled study of treatments and early prognosis. Gastroenterology 1972;63:820-33
  • Murray-Lyon IM, Stern RB, Williams R. Controlled trial of prednisone and azathioprine in active chronic hepatitis. Lancet 1973;1:735-7
  • Czaja AJ. Rapidity of treatment response and outcome in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2009;51:161-7
  • Mistilis SP, Skyring AP, Blackburn CR. Natural history of active chronic hepatitis. I. Clinical features, course, diagnostic criteria, morbidity, mortality and survival. Australas Ann Med 1968;17:214-23
  • Roberts SK, Therneau TM, Czaja AJ. Prognosis of histological cirrhosis in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterology 1996;110:848-57
  • Hoeroldt B, McFarlane E, Dube A, et al. Long-term outcomes of patients with autoimmune hepatitis managed at a nontransplant center. Gastroenterology 2011;140:1980-9
  • Delgado JS, Vodonos A, Malnick S, et al. Autoimmune hepatitis in southern Israel: a 15-year multicenter study. J Dig Dis 2013;14:611-18
  • Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA. Decreased fibrosis during corticosteroid therapy of autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2004;40:646-52
  • Czaja AJ. Review article: prevention and reversal of hepatic fibrosis in autoimmune hepatitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2014;39:385-406
  • Czaja AJ. Autoimmune hepatitis: focusing on treatments other than steroids. Can J Gastroenterol 2012;26:615-20
  • Czaja AJ. Advances in the current treatment of autoimmune hepatitis. Dig Dis Sci 2012;57:1996-2010
  • Selvarajah V, Montano-Loza AJ, Czaja AJ. Systematic review: managing suboptimal treatment responses in autoimmune hepatitis with conventional and nonstandard drugs. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2012;36:691-707
  • Montano-Loza AJ, Carpenter HA, Czaja AJ. Features associated with treatment failure in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis and predictive value of the model of end-stage liver disease. Hepatology 2007;46:1138-45
  • Czaja AJ, Davis GL, Ludwig J, Taswell HF. Complete resolution of inflammatory activity following corticosteroid treatment of HBsAg-negative chronic active hepatitis. Hepatology 1984;4:622-7
  • Czaja AJ. Safety issues in the management of autoimmune hepatitis. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2008;7:319-33
  • Czaja AJ. Features and consequences of untreated type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Liver Int 2009;29:816-23
  • Hegarty JE, Nouri Aria KT, Portmann B, et al. Relapse following treatment withdrawal in patients with autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. Hepatology 1983;3:685-9
  • Czaja AJ, Menon KV, Carpenter HA. Sustained remission after corticosteroid therapy for type 1 autoimmune hepatitis: a retrospective analysis. Hepatology 2002;35:890-7
  • Montano-Loza AJ, Carpenter HA, Czaja AJ. Consequences of treatment withdrawal in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Liver Int 2007;27:507-15
  • Czaja AJ. Late relapse of type 1 autoimmune hepatitis after corticosteroid withdrawal. Dig Dis Sci 2010;55:1761-9
  • Johnson PJ, McFarlane IG, Williams R. Azathioprine for long-term maintenance of remission in autoimmune hepatitis. N Engl J Med 1995;333:958-63
  • van Gerven NM, Verwer BJ, Witte BI, et al. Relapse is almost universal after withdrawal of immunosuppressive medication in patients with autoimmune hepatitis in remission. J Hepatol 2013;58:141-7
  • Czaja AJ. Review article: permanent drug withdrawal is desirable and achievable for autoimmune hepatitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2014;39:1043-58
  • Montano-Loza AJ, Carpenter HA, Czaja AJ. Improving the end point of corticosteroid therapy in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis to reduce the frequency of relapse. Am J Gastroenterol 2007;102:1005-12
  • Van Thiel DH, Wright H, Carroll P, et al. Tacrolimus: a potential new treatment for autoimmune chronic active hepatitis: results of an open-label preliminary trial. Am J Gastroenterol 1995;90:771-6
  • Aqel BA, Machicao V, Rosser B, et al. Efficacy of tacrolimus in the treatment of steroid refractory autoimmune hepatitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2004;38:805-9
  • Malekzadeh R, Nasseri-Moghaddam S, Kaviani MJ, et al. Cyclosporin A is a promising alternative to corticosteroids in autoimmune hepatitis. Dig Dis Sci 2001;46:1321-7
  • Nasseri-Moghaddam S, Nikfam S, Karimiam S, et al. Cyclosporine-A versus prednisolone for induction of remission in auto-immune hepatitis: interim analysis report of a randomized controlled trial. Middle East J Dig Dis 2013;5:193-200
  • Hennes EM, Oo YH, Schramm C, et al. Mycophenolate mofetil as second line therapy in autoimmune hepatitis? Am J Gastroenterol 2008;103:3063-70
  • Aw MM, Dhawan A, Samyn M, et al. Mycophenolate mofetil as rescue treatment for autoimmune liver disease in children: a 5-year follow-up. J Hepatol 2009;51:156-60
  • Baven-Pronk AM, Coenraad MJ, van Buuren HR, et al. The role of mycophenolate mofetil in the management of autoimmune hepatitis and overlap syndromes. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2011;34:335-43
  • Zachou K, Gatselis N, Papadamou G, et al. Mycophenolate for the treatment of autoimmune hepatitis: prospective assessment of its efficacy and safety for induction and maintenance of remission in a large cohort of treatment-naive patients. J Hepatol 2011;55:636-46
  • Kerkar N, Dugan C, Rumbo C, et al. Rapamycin successfully treats post-transplant autoimmune hepatitis. Am J Transplant 2005;5:1085-9
  • Manns MP, Woynarowski M, Kreisel W, et al. Budesonide induces remission more effectively than prednisone in a controlled trial of patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterology 2010;139:1198-206
  • Weiler-Normann C, Wiegard C, Schramm C, Lohse AW. A case of difficult-to-treat autoimmune hepatitis successfully managed by TNF-alpha blockade. Am J Gastroenterol 2009;104:2877-8
  • Burak KW, Swain MG, Santodomino-Garzon T, et al. Rituximab for the treatment of patients with autoimmune hepatitis who are refractory or intolerant to standard therapy. Can J Gastroenterol 2013;27:273-80
  • Dhirapong A, Yang GX, Nadler S, et al. Therapeutic effect of cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4/immunoglobulin on a murine model of primary biliary cirrhosis. Hepatology 2013;57:708-15
  • Lapierre P, Beland K, Yang R, Alvarez F. Adoptive transfer of ex vivo expanded regulatory T cells in an autoimmune hepatitis murine model restores peripheral tolerance. Hepatology 2013;57:217-27
  • Lalazar G, Preston S, Zigmond E, et al. Glycolipids as immune modulatory tools. Mini Rev Med Chem 2006;6:1249-53
  • Yang JQ, Kim PJ, Singh RR. Brief treatment with iNKT cell ligand alpha-galactosylceramide confers a long-term protection against lupus. J Clin Immunol 2012;32:106-13
  • Czaja AJ. Review article: chemokines as orchestrators of autoimmune hepatitis and potential therapeutic targets. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2014, doi:10.1111/apt.12825
  • Fox CK, Furtwaengler A, Nepomuceno RR, et al. Apoptotic pathways in primary biliary cirrhosis and autoimmune hepatitis. Liver 2001;21:272-9
  • Guicciardi ME, Gores GJ. Apoptosis as a mechanism for liver disease progression. Semin Liver Dis 2010;30:402-10
  • Boberg KM, Aadland E, Jahnsen J, et al. Incidence and prevalence of primary biliary cirrhosis, primary sclerosing cholangitis, and autoimmune hepatitis in a Norwegian population. Scand J Gastroenterol 1998;33:99-103
  • Werner M, Prytz H, Ohlsson B, et al. Epidemiology and the initial presentation of autoimmune hepatitis in Sweden: a nationwide study. Scand J Gastroenterol 2008;43:1232-40
  • Manns MP. Autoimmune hepatitis: the dilemma of rare diseases. Gastroenterology 2011;140:1874-6
  • Lamers MM, van Oijen MG, Pronk M, Drenth JP. Treatment options for autoimmune hepatitis: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. J Hepatol 2010;53:191-8
  • Czaja AJ. Drug choices in autoimmune hepatitis: part A - steroids. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012;6:603-15
  • Czaja AJ. Drug choices in autoimmune hepatitis: part B - nonsteroids. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012;6:617-35
  • Czaja AJ. Current and future treatments of autoimmune hepatitis. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009;3:269-91
  • Summerskill WH, Korman MG, Ammon HV, Baggenstoss AH. Prednisone for chronic active liver disease: dose titration, standard dose, and combination with azathioprine compared. Gut 1975;16:876-83
  • Kanzler S, Lohr H, Gerken G, et al. Long-term management and prognosis of autoimmune hepatitis (AIH): a single center experience. Z Gastroenterol 2001;39:339-41. 44-8
  • Kanzler S, Gerken G, Lohr H, et al. Duration of immunosuppressive therapy in autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2001;34:354-5
  • Czaja AJ, Wolf AM, Baggenstoss AH. Laboratory assessment of severe chronic active liver disease during and after corticosteroid therapy: correlation of serum transaminase and gamma globulin levels with histologic features. Gastroenterology 1981;80:687-92
  • Hennes EM, Zeniya M, Czaja AJ, et al. Simplified criteria for the diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 2008;48:169-76
  • Luth S, Herkel J, Kanzler S, et al. Serologic markers compared with liver biopsy for monitoring disease activity in autoimmune hepatitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2008;42:926-30
  • Czaja AJ. Review article: the management of autoimmune hepatitis beyond consensus guidelines. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2013;38:343-64
  • Czaja AJ, Ammon HV, Summerskill WH. Clinical features and prognosis of severe chronic active liver disease (CALD) after corticosteroid-induced remission. Gastroenterology 1980;78:518-23
  • Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA. Histological features associated with relapse after corticosteroid withdrawal in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Liver Int 2003;23:116-23
  • Verma S, Gunuwan B, Mendler M, et al. Factors predicting relapse and poor outcome in type I autoimmune hepatitis: role of cirrhosis development, patterns of transaminases during remission and plasma cell activity in the liver biopsy. Am J Gastroenterol 2004;99:1510-16
  • Murasko DM, Goonewardene IM. T-cell function in aging: mechanisms of decline. Annu Rev Gerontol Geriatr 1990;10:71-96
  • Schwab R, Russo C, Weksler ME. Altered major histocompatibility complex-restricted antigen recognition by T cells from elderly humans. Eur J Immunol 1992;22:2989-93
  • Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA. Distinctive clinical phenotype and treatment outcome of type 1 autoimmune hepatitis in the elderly. Hepatology 2006;43:532-8
  • Czaja AJ. Low-dose corticosteroid therapy after multiple relapses of severe HBsAg-negative chronic active hepatitis. Hepatology 1990;11:1044-9
  • Seela S, Sheela H, Boyer JL. Autoimmune hepatitis type 1: safety and efficacy of prolonged medical therapy. Liver Int 2005;25:734-9
  • Czaja AJ. Hepatocellular cancer and other malignancies in autoimmune hepatitis. Dig Dis Sci 2013;58:1459-76
  • Ngu JH, Gearry RB, Frampton CM, Stedman CA. Mortality and the risk of malignancy in autoimmune liver diseases: a population-based study in Canterbury, New Zealand. Hepatology 2012;55:522-9
  • Wang KK, Czaja AJ, Beaver SJ, Go VL. Extrahepatic malignancy following long-term immunosuppressive therapy of severe hepatitis B surface antigen-negative chronic active hepatitis. Hepatology 1989;10:39-43
  • Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA. Progressive fibrosis during corticosteroid therapy of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 2004;39:1631-8
  • Czaja AJ. Hepatic inflammation and progressive liver fibrosis in chronic liver disease. World J Gastroenterol 2014;20:2515-32
  • Czaja AJ. Emerging opportunities for site-specific molecular and cellular interventions in autoimmune hepatitis. Dig Dis Sci 2010;55:2712-26
  • Czaja AJ. Nonstandard drugs and feasible new interventions for autoimmune hepatitis. Part- I. Inflamm Allergy Drug Targets 2012;11:337-50
  • Czaja AJ. Nonstandard drugs and feasible new interventions for autoimmune hepatitis. Part-II. Inflamm Allergy Drug Targets 2012;11:351-63
  • Czaja AJ. Promising pharmacological, molecular and cellular treatments of autoimmune hepatitis. Curr Pharm Des 2011;17:3120-40
  • Czaja AJ, Beaver SJ, Shiels MT. Sustained remission after corticosteroid therapy of severe hepatitis B surface antigen-negative chronic active hepatitis. Gastroenterology 1987;92:215-19
  • Davis GL, Czaja AJ, Ludwig J. Development and prognosis of histologic cirrhosis in corticosteroid-treated hepatitis B surface antigen-negative chronic active hepatitis. Gastroenterology 1984;87:1222-7
  • Soloway RD, Baggenstoss AH, Schoenfield LJ, Summerskill WH. Observer error and sampling variability tested in evaluation of hepatitis and cirrhosis by liver biopsy. Am J Dig Dis 1971;16:1082-6
  • Schalm SW, Korman MG, Summerskill WH, et al. Severe chronic active liver disease. Prognostic significance of initial morphologic patterns. Am J Dig Dis 1977;22:973-80
  • Bai J, Odin JA. Apoptosis and the liver: relation to autoimmunity and related conditions. Autoimmun Rev 2003;2:36-42
  • Canbay A, Taimr P, Torok N, et al. Apoptotic body engulfment by a human stellate cell line is profibrogenic. Lab Invest 2003;83:655-63
  • Friedman SL. Mechanisms of hepatic fibrogenesis. Gastroenterology 2008;134:1655-69
  • Czaja AJ. Management of recalcitrant autoimmune hepatitis. Curr Hepatitis Rep 2013;12:66-77
  • Schalm SW, Ammon HV, Summerskill WH. Failure of customary treatment in chronic active liver disease: causes and management. Ann Clin Res 1976;8:221-7
  • Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA. Empiric therapy of autoimmune hepatitis with mycophenolate mofetil: comparison with conventional treatment for refractory disease. J Clin Gastroenterol 2005;39:819-25
  • Pratt DS, Flavin DP, Kaplan MM. The successful treatment of autoimmune hepatitis with 6-mercaptopurine after failure with azathioprine. Gastroenterology 1996;110:271-4
  • de Boer NK, van Nieuwkerk CM, Aparicio Pages MN, et al. Promising treatment of autoimmune hepatitis with 6-thioguanine after adverse events on azathioprine. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005;17:457-61
  • de Boer YS, van Gerven NM, de Boer NK, et al. Allopurinol safely and effectively optimises thiopurine metabolites in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2013;37:640-6
  • de Boer NK, Reinisch W, Teml A, et al. 6-Thioguanine treatment in inflammatory bowel disease: a critical appraisal by a European 6-TG working party. Digestion 2006;73:25-31
  • Seinen ML, van Asseldonk DP, Mulder CJ, de Boer NK. Dosing 6-thioguanine in inflammatory bowel disease: expert-based guidelines for daily practice. J Gastrointestin Liver Dis 2010;19:291-4
  • de Boer NK, Zondervan PE, Gilissen LP, et al. Absence of nodular regenerative hyperplasia after low-dose 6-thioguanine maintenance therapy in inflammatory bowel disease patients. Dig Liver Dis 2008;40:108-13
  • Rumbo C, Emerick KM, Emre S, Shneider BL. Azathioprine metabolite measurements in the treatment of autoimmune hepatitis in pediatric patients: a preliminary report. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2002;35:391-8
  • Hindorf U, Jahed K, Bergquist A, et al. Characterisation and utility of thiopurine methyltransferase and thiopurine metabolite measurements in autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2010;52:106-11
  • Nguyen TM, Daubard M, Le Gall C, et al. Monitoring of azathioprine metabolites in pediatric patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Ther Drug Monit 2010;32:433-7
  • Ferucci ED, Hurlburt KJ, Mayo MJ, et al. Azathioprine metabolite measurements are not useful in following treatment of autoimmune hepatitis in Alaska Native and other non-Caucasian people. Can J Gastroenterol 2011;25:21-7
  • Gonzalez-Lama Y, Bermejo F, Lopez-Sanroman A, et al. Thiopurine methyl-transferase activity and azathioprine metabolite concentrations do not predict clinical outcome in thiopurine-treated inflammatory bowel disease patients. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2011;34:544-54
  • Stocco G, Londero M, Campanozzi A, et al. Usefulness of the measurement of azathioprine metabolites in the assessment of non-adherence. J Crohns Colitis 2010;4:599-602
  • Bajaj JS, Saeian K, Varma RR, et al. Increased rates of early adverse reaction to azathioprine in patients with Crohn’s disease compared to autoimmune hepatitis: a tertiary referral center experience. Am J Gastroenterol 2005;100:1121-5
  • Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA. Thiopurine methyltransferase deficiency and azathioprine intolerance in autoimmune hepatitis. Dig Dis Sci 2006;51:968-75
  • Heneghan MA, Allan ML, Bornstein JD, et al. Utility of thiopurine methyltransferase genotyping and phenotyping, and measurement of azathioprine metabolites in the management of patients with autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2006;45:584-91
  • Szumlanski CL, Honchel R, Scott MC, Weinshilboum RM. Human liver thiopurine methyltransferase pharmacogenetics: biochemical properties, liver-erythrocyte correlation and presence of isozymes. Pharmacogenetics 1992;2:148-59
  • Langley PG, Underhill J, Tredger JM, et al. Thiopurine methyltransferase phenotype and genotype in relation to azathioprine therapy in autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2002;37:441-7
  • Alvarez F, Ciocca M, Canero-Velasco C, et al. Short-term cyclosporine induces a remission of autoimmune hepatitis in children. J Hepatol 1999;30:222-7
  • Czaja AJ. Challenges in the diagnosis and management of autoimmune hepatitis. Can J Gastroenterol 2013;27:531-9
  • Woynarowski M, Nemeth A, Baruch Y, et al. Budesonide versus prednisone with azathioprine for the treatment of autoimmune hepatitis in children and adolescents. J Pediatr 2013;163:1347-53
  • Czaja AJ, Lindor KD. Failure of budesonide in a pilot study of treatment-dependent autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterology 2000;119:1312-16
  • Geier A, Gartung C, Dietrich CG, et al. Side effects of budesonide in liver cirrhosis due to chronic autoimmune hepatitis: influence of hepatic metabolism versus portosystemic shunts on a patient complicated with HCC. World J Gastroenterol 2003;9:2681-5
  • Lohse AW, Gil H. Reactivation of autoimmune hepatitis during budesonide monotherapy, and response to standard treatment. J Hepatol 2011;54:837-9
  • Mieli-Vergani G, Vergani D. Budesonide for juvenile autoimmune hepatitis? Not yet. J Pediatr 2013;163:1246-8
  • Allison AC, Eugui EM. Mycophenolate mofetil and its mechanisms of action. Immunopharmacology 2000;47:85-118
  • Morath C, Schwenger V, Beimler J, et al. Antifibrotic actions of mycophenolic acid. Clin Transpl 2006;20(Suppl 17):25-9
  • Lim DG, Joe IY, Park YH, et al. Effect of immunosuppressants on the expansion and function of naturally occurring regulatory T cells. Transpl Immunol 2007;18:94-100
  • Anderka MT, Lin AE, Abuelo DN, et al. Reviewing the evidence for mycophenolate mofetil as a new teratogen: case report and review of the literature. Am J Med Genet A 2009;149A:1241-8
  • Burak KW, Urbanski SJ, Swain MG. Successful treatment of refractory type 1 autoimmune hepatitis with methotrexate. J Hepatol 1998;29:990-3
  • Kanzler S, Gerken G, Dienes HP, et al. Cyclophosphamide as alternative immunosuppressive therapy for autoimmune hepatitis – report of three cases. Z Gastroenterol 1997;35:571-8
  • Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA, Lindor KD. Ursodeoxycholic acid as adjunctive therapy for problematic type 1 autoimmune hepatitis: a randomized placebo-controlled treatment trial. Hepatology 1999;30:1381-6
  • Weiler-Normann C, Schramm C, Quaas A, et al. Infliximab as a rescue treatment in difficult-to-treat autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2013;58:529-34
  • Larsen FS, Vainer B, Eefsen M, et al. Low-dose tacrolimus ameliorates liver inflammation and fibrosis in steroid refractory autoimmune hepatitis. World J Gastroenterol 2007;13:3232-6
  • Saitis A, Gatselis N, Zachou K, Dalekos GN. Use of TNFalpha antagonists in refractory AIH: revealing the unforeseen. J Hepatol 2013;59:197-8
  • Chatur N, Ramji A, Bain VG, et al. Transplant immunosuppressive agents in non-transplant chronic autoimmune hepatitis: the Canadian association for the study of liver (CASL) experience with mycophenolate mofetil and tacrolimus. Liver Int 2005;25:723-7
  • Lohse AW, Weiler-Norman C, Burdelski M. De novo autoimmune hepatitis after liver transplantation. Hepatol Res 2007;37(Suppl 3):S462
  • Beschorner WE, Suresch DL, Shinozawa T, et al. Thymic immunopathology after cyclosporine: effect of irradiation and age on medullary involution and recovery. Transplant Proc 1988;20:1072-8
  • Lotem J, Kama R, Sachs L. Suppression or induction of apoptosis by opposing pathways downstream from calcium-activated calcineurin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96:12016-20
  • Hess AD, Fischer AC, Horwitz LR, Laulis MK. Cyclosporine-induced autoimmunity: critical role of autoregulation in the prevention of major histocompatibility class II-dependent autoaggression. Transplant Proc 1993;25:2811-13
  • Marzec M, Liu X, Wysocka M, et al. Simultaneous inhibition of mTOR-containing complex 1 (mTORC1) and MNK induces apoptosis of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) cells. PLoS One 2011;6:e24849
  • Wagner F, Henningsen B, Lederer C, et al. Rapamycin blocks hepatoblastoma growth in vitro and in vivo implicating new treatment options in high-risk patients. Eur J Cancer 2012;48(15):2442-50
  • Choi SJ, You HS, Chung SY. Rapamycin-induced cytotoxic signal transduction pathway. Transplant Proc 2008;40:2737-9
  • Zhang Y, Zhang JW, Lv GY, et al. Effects of STAT3 gene silencing and rapamycin on apoptosis in hepatocarcinoma cells. Int J Med Sci 2012;9:216-24
  • Nikolaeva N, Bemelman FJ, Yong SL, et al. Rapamycin does not induce anergy but inhibits expansion and differentiation of alloreactive human T cells. Transplantation 2006;81:445-54
  • Demirkiran A, Hendrikx TK, Baan CC, van der Laan LJ. Impact of immunosuppressive drugs on CD4+CD25+FOXP3+ regulatory T cells: does in vitro evidence translate to the clinical setting? Transplantation 2008;85:783-9
  • Wu T, Zhang L, Xu K, et al. Immunosuppressive drugs on inducing Ag-specific CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) Treg cells during immune response in vivo. Transpl Immunol 2012;27:30-8
  • Veroux M, Tallarita T, Corona D, et al. Sirolimus in solid organ transplantation: current therapies and new frontiers. Immunotherapy 2011;3:1487-97
  • Casanovas T, Argudo A, Pena-Cala MC. Effectiveness and safety of everolimus in the treatment of autoimmune hepatitis related to anti-hepatitis C virus therapy after liver transplant: three case reports. Transplant Proc 2011;43:2233-6
  • Roberts RJ, Wells AC, Unitt E, et al. Sirolimus-induced pneumonitis following liver transplantation. Liver Transpl 2007;13:853-6
  • Bai S, Stepkowski SM, Kahan BD, Brunner LJ. Metabolic interaction between cyclosporine and sirolimus. Transplantation 2004;77:1507-12
  • van Meerten T, Hagenbeek A. CD20-targeted therapy: the next generation of antibodies. Semin Hematol 2010;47:199-210
  • Cooper N, Arnold DM. The effect of rituximab on humoral and cell mediated immunity and infection in the treatment of autoimmune diseases. Br J Haematol 2010;149:3-13
  • Liossis SN, Sfikakis PP. Rituximab-induced B cell depletion in autoimmune diseases: potential effects on T cells. Clin Immunol 2008;127:280-5
  • Santos ES, Arosemena LR, Raez LE, et al. Successful treatment of autoimmune hepatitis and idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura with the monoclonal antibody, rituximab: case report and review of literature. Liver Int 2006;26:625-9
  • Evans JT, Shepard MM, Oates JC, et al. Rituximab-responsive cryoglobulinemic glomerulonephritis in a patient with autoimmune hepatitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2008;42:862-3
  • Barth E, Clawson J. A case of autoimmune hepatitis treated with rituximab. Case Rep Gastroenterol 2010;4:502-9
  • Carey EJ, Somaratne K, Rakela J. Successful rituximab therapy in refractory autoimmune hepatitis and Evans syndrome. Rev Med Chil 2011;139:1484-7
  • Mastroianni CM, Lichtner M, Citton R, et al. Current trends in management of hepatitis B virus reactivation in the biologic therapy era. World J Gastroenterol 2011;17:3881-7
  • Tsuda M, Moritoki Y, Lian ZX, et al. Biochemical and immunologic effects of rituximab in patients with primary biliary cirrhosis and an incomplete response to ursodeoxycholic acid. Hepatology 2012;55:512-21
  • Ram R, Ben-Bassat I, Shpilberg O, et al. The late adverse events of rituximab therapy – rare but there! Leuk Lymphoma. 2009;50:1083-95
  • Chakravarty EF, Murray ER, Kelman A, Farmer P. Pregnancy outcomes after maternal exposure to rituximab. Blood 2011;117:1499-506
  • Heneghan MA, Al-Chalabi T, McFarlane IG. Cost-effectiveness of pharmacotherapy for autoimmune hepatitis. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2006;7:145-56
  • Czaja AJ. Autoimmune hepatitis. Part A: pathogenesis. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2007;1:113-28
  • Karampetsou MP, Liossis SN, Sfikakis PP. TNF-alpha antagonists beyond approved indications: stories of success and prospects for the future. QJM 2010;103:917-28
  • Li Z, Yang S, Lin H, et al. Probiotics and antibodies to TNF inhibit inflammatory activity and improve nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology 2003;37:343-50
  • Schramm C, Schneider A, Marx A, Lohse AW. Adalimumab could suppress the activity of non alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Z Gastroenterol 2008;46:1369-71
  • Ramos-Casals M, Brito-Zeron P, Soto MJ, et al. Autoimmune diseases induced by TNF-targeted therapies. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 2008;22:847-61
  • Boetticher NC, Peine CJ, Kwo P, et al. A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled multicenter trial of etanercept in the treatment of alcoholic hepatitis. Gastroenterology 2008;135:1953-60
  • Tobon GJ, Canas C, Jaller JJ, et al. Serious liver disease induced by infliximab. Clin Rheumatol 2007;26:578-81
  • Beigel F, Schnitzler F, Paul Laubender R, et al. Formation of antinuclear and double-strand DNA antibodies and frequency of lupus-like syndrome in anti-TNF-alpha antibody-treated patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2011;17:91-8
  • Ozorio G, McGarity B, Bak H, et al. Autoimmune hepatitis following infliximab therapy for ankylosing spondylitis. Med J Aust 2007;187:524-6
  • Menon KV, Stadheim L, Kamath PS, et al. A pilot study of the safety and tolerability of etanercept in patients with alcoholic hepatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2004;99:255-60
  • Bruns H, Meinken C, Schauenberg P, et al. Anti-TNF immunotherapy reduces CD8+ T cell-mediated antimicrobial activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in humans. J Clin Invest 2009;119:1167-77
  • Agnholt J, Kelsen J, Brandsborg B, et al. Increased production of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in Crohn’s disease – a possible target for infliximab treatment. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004;16:649-55
  • Herold KC, Hagopian W, Auger JA, et al. Anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody in new-onset type 1 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 2002;346:1692-8
  • Holder BS, Grant CR, Liberal R, et al. Retinoic acid stabilizes antigen-specific regulatory T-cell function in autoimmune hepatitis type 2. J Autoimmun 2014; doi: 10.1016/j/jaut.2014.02.001
  • Blumenfeld HJ, Tohn R, Haeryfar SM, et al. Structure-guided design of an invariant natural killer T cell agonist for optimum protection from type 1 diabetes in non-obese diabetic mice. Clin Exp Immunol 2011;166:121-33
  • Yellin M, Paliienko I, Balanescu A, et al. A phase II, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study evaluating the efficacy and safety of MDX-1100, a fully human anti-CXCL10 monoclonal antibody, in combination with methotrexate in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2012;64:1730-9
  • Anstee QM, Concas D, Kudo H, et al. Impact of pan-caspase inhibition in animal models of established steatosis and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. J Hepatol 2010;53:542-50
  • Scalapino KJ, Daikh DI. CTLA-4: a key regulatory point in the control of autoimmune disease. Immunol Rev 2008;223:143-55
  • Korhonen R, Moilanen E. Abatacept, a novel CD80/86-CD28 T cell co-stimulation modulator, in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2009;104:276-84
  • Perruche S, Zhang P, Liu Y, et al. CD3-specific antibody-induced immune tolerance involves transforming growth factor-beta from phagocytes digesting apoptotic T cells. Nat Med 2008;14:528-35
  • Ferran C, Sheehan K, Dy M, et al. Cytokine-related syndrome following injection of anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody: further evidence for transient in vivo T cell activation. Eur J Immunol 1990;20:509-15
  • Chatenoud L. CD3 antibody treatment stimulates the functional capability of regulatory T cells. Novartis Found Symp 2003;252:279-86. discussion 86-90
  • Longhi MS, Meda F, Wang P, et al. Expansion and de novo generation of potentially therapeutic regulatory T cells in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 2008;47:581-91
  • Santodomingo-Garzon T, Swain MG. Role of NKT cells in autoimmune liver disease. Autoimmun Rev 2011;10:793-800
  • Van Kaer L, Parekh VV, Wu L. Invariant NK T cells: potential for immunotherapeutic targeting with glycolipid antigens. Immunotherapy 2011;3:59-75
  • Yoshiga Y, Goto D, Segawa S, et al. Activation of natural killer T cells by alpha-carba-GalCer (RCAI-56), a novel synthetic glycolipid ligand, suppresses murine collagen-induced arthritis. Clin Exp Immunol 2011;164:236-47
  • Lapierre P, Djilali-Saiah I, Vitozzi S, Alvarez F. A murine model of type 2 autoimmune hepatitis: xenoimmunization with human antigens. Hepatology 2004;39:1066-74
  • Holdener M, Hintermann E, Bayer M, et al. Breaking tolerance to the natural human liver autoantigen cytochrome P450 2D6 by virus infection. J Exp Med 2008;205:1409-22
  • Mato JM, Camara J, Fernandez de Paz J, et al. S-adenosylmethionine in alcoholic liver cirrhosis: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, multicenter clinical trial. J Hepatol 1999;30:1081-9
  • Harrison SA, Torgerson S, Hayashi P, et al. Vitamin E and vitamin C treatment improves fibrosis in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2003;98:2485-90
  • Oliveira CP, Stefano JT, de Siqueira ER, et al. Combination of N-acetylcysteine and metformin improves histological steatosis and fibrosis in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Hepatol Res 2008;38:159-65
  • Sanyal AJ, Chalasani N, Kowdley KV, et al. Pioglitazone, vitamin E, or placebo for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. N Engl J Med 2010;362:1675-85
  • Colmenero J, Bataller R, Sancho-Bru P, et al. Effects of losartan on hepatic expression of nonphagocytic NADPH oxidase and fibrogenic genes in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2009;297:G726-34
  • Ueno Y, Ohmi T, Yamamoto M, et al. Orally-administered caspase inhibitor PF-03491390 is retained in the liver for prolonged periods with low systemic exposure, exerting a hepatoprotective effect against alpha-fas-induced liver injury in a mouse model. J Pharmacol Sci 2007;105:201-5
  • Canbay A, Feldstein A, Baskin-Bey E, et al. The caspase inhibitor IDN-6556 attenuates hepatic injury and fibrosis in the bile duct ligated mouse. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2004;308:1191-6
  • Pockros PJ, Schiff ER, Shiffman ML, et al. Oral IDN-6556, an antiapoptotic caspase inhibitor, may lower aminotransferase activity in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 2007;46:324-9
  • Demirkiran A, Sewgobind VD, van der Weijde J, et al. Conversion from calcineurin inhibitor to mycophenolate mofetil-based immunosuppression changes the frequency and phenotype of CD4+FOXP3+ regulatory T cells. Transplantation 2009;87:1062-8
  • Uss E, Yong SL, Hooibrink B, et al. Rapamycin enhances the number of alloantigen-induced human CD103+ CD8+ regulatory T cells in vitro. Transplantation 2007;83:1098-106

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.