306
Views
30
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Treatment of fibromyalgia and its symptoms

, MD
Pages 1629-1642 | Published online: 09 Aug 2007

Bibliography

  • WOLFE F, SMYTHE HA, YUNUS MB et al.: The American College of Rheumatology 1990 criteria for the classification of fibromyalgia. Report of the multicenter criteria committee. Arthritis Rheum. (1990) 33:160-172.
  • SARZI-PUTTINI P, ATZENI F, DIANA A, DORIA A, FURLAN R: Increased neural sympathetic activation in fibromyalgia syndrome. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. (2006) 1069:109-117.
  • CROFFORD LJ: The relationship of fibromyalgia to neuropathic pain syndromes. J. Rheumatol. Suppl. (2005) 75:41-45.
  • GERWIN RD: A review of myofascial pain and fibromyalgia – factors that promote their persistence. Acupunct. Med. (2005) 23:121-134.
  • ADLER GK, KINSLEY BT, HURWITZ S, MOSSEY CJ, GOLDENBERG DL: Reduced hypothalamic–pituitary and sympathoadrenal responses to hypoglycemia in women with fibromyalgia syndrome. Am. J. Med. (1999) 106:534-543.
  • TORPY DJ, PAPANICOLAOU DA, LOTSIKAS AJ, WILDER RL, CHROUSOS GP, PILLEMER SR: Responses of the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis to interleukin-6 – a pilot study in fibromyalgia. Arthritis Rheum. (2000) 43:872-880.
  • RUSSELL IJ, ORR MD, LITTMAN B et al.: Elevated cerebrospinal fluid levels of substance P in patients with the fibromyalgia syndrome. Arthritis Rheum. (1994) 37:1593-1601.
  • BRADLEY LA, ALARCON GS, SOTOLONGO A et al.: Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of substance P (SP) are abnormal in patients with fibromyalgia (FM) regardless of traumatic or insidious pain onset. Arthritis Rheum. (1998) 41:S256.
  • VAEROY H, HELLE R, FORRE O, KASS E, TERENIUS L: Elevated CSF levels of substance P and high incidence of Raynaud phenomenon in patients with fibromyalgia: new features for diagnosis. Pain (1988) 32:21-26.
  • NEECK G: Neuroendocrine and hormonal perturbations and relations to the serotonergic system in fibromyalgia patients. Scand. J. Rheumatol. (2000) 29:8-12.
  • GIOVENGO SL, RUSSELL IJ, LARSON AA: Increased concentrations of nerve growth factor in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with fibromyalgia. J. Rheumatol. (1999) 26:1564-1569.
  • LEWIN GR, MENDELL LM: Nerve growth factor and nociception. Trends Neurosci. (1993) 16:353-359.
  • PETTY BG, CORNBLATH DR, ADORNATO BT et al.: The effect of systemically administered recombinant human nerve growth factor in healthy human subjects. Ann. Neurol. (1994) 36:244-246.
  • FU KY, LIGHT AR, MAIXNER W: Long-lasting inflammation and long-term hyperalgesia after subcutaneous formalin injection into the rat hindpaw. J. Pain (2001) 2:2-11.
  • WALLACE DJ, LINKER-ISRAELI M, HALLEGUA D, SILVERMAN S, SILVER D, WEISMAN MH: Cytokines play an aetiopathogenetic role in fibromyalgia: a hypothesis and pilot study. Rheumatology (2001) 40:743-749.
  • SALEMI S, RETHAGE J, WOLLINA U et al.: Detection of interleukin 1β (IL-1β), IL-6, and TNF-α in skin of patients with fibromyalgia. J. Rheumatol. (2003) 30:146-150.
  • CUNHA FQ, LORENZETTI BB, POOLE S, FERREIRA SH: Interleukin-8 as a mediator of sympathetic pain. Br. J. Pharmacol. (1991) 104:765-767.
  • MENSE S: Neurobiological concepts of fibromyalgia – the possible role of descending spinal tracts. Scand. J. Rheumatol. (2000) 29:24-29.
  • HENRIKSSON KG: Is fibromyalgia a distinct clinical entity? Pain mechanisms in fibromyalgia syndrome. A myologist's view. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Rheumatol. (1999) 13:455-461.
  • HENRIKSSON KG: Fibromyalgia – from syndrome to disease. Overview of pathogenetic mechanisms. J. Rehabil. Med. (2003) 35:89-94.
  • MENSE S: Nociception from skeletal muscle in relation to clinical muscle pain. Pain (1993) 54:241-289.
  • MENSE S, SCHMIDT RF. Muscle pain: which receptors are responsible for the transmission of noxious stimuli? In: Physiological Aspects of Clinical Neurology. Rose FC (Ed.), Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, UK (1976):265-278.
  • MENSE S: Considerations concerning the neurobiological basis of muscle pain. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. (1991) 69:610-616.
  • MENSE S: The pathogenesis of muscle pain. Curr. Pain Headache Rep. (2003) 7:419-425.
  • LAUTENSCHLAGER J, BRUCKLE W, SCHNORRENBERGER CC, MULLER W: Measuring pressure pain of tendons and muscles in healthy probands and patients with generalized tendomyopathy (fibromyalgia syndrome). Z. Rheumatol. (1988) 47:397-404.
  • QUIMBY LG, BLOCK SR, GRATWICK GM: Fibromyalgia: generalized pain intolerance and manifold symptom reporting. J. Rheumatol. (1988) 15:1264-1270.
  • TUNKS E, CROOK J, NORMAN G, KALAHER S: Tender points in fibromyalgia. Pain (1988) 34:11-19.
  • MIKKELSSON M, LATIKKA P, KAUTIAINEN H, ISOMERI R, ISOMAKI H: Muscle and bone pressure pain threshold and pain tolerance in fibromyalgia patients and controls. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. (1992) 73:814-818.
  • KOSEK E, EKHOLM J, HANSSON P: Increased pressure pain sensibility in fibromyalgia patients is located deep to the skin but not restricted to muscle tissue. Pain (1995) 63:335-339.
  • BENDTSEN L, NORREGAARD J, JENSEN R, OLESEN J: Evidence of qualitatively altered nociception in patients with fibromyalgia. Arthritis Rheum. (1997) 40:98-102.
  • VIERCK CJ, CANNON RL, FRY G, MAIXNER W, WHITSEL BL: Characteristics of temporal summation of second pain sensations elicited by brief contact of glabrous skin by a preheated thermode. J. Neurophysiol. (1997) 78:992-1002.
  • HOKFELT T, ZHANG X, SU X, WIESENFELD-HALLIN Z: Central consequences of peripheral nerve damage. In: Wall and Melzack's Textbook of Pain. McMahon S, Koltzenburg M (Eds), Elsevier, London, UK (2005):947-959.
  • STAUD R, VIERCK CJ, CANNON RL, MAUDERLI AP, PRICE DD: Abnormal sensitization and temporal summation of second pain (wind-up) in patients with fibromyalgia syndrome. Pain (2001) 91:165-175.
  • STAUD R, CANNON RC, MAUDERLI AP, ROBINSON ME, PRICE DD, VIERCK CJ: Temporal summation of pain from mechanical stimulation of muscle tissue in normal controls and subjects with fibromyalgia syndrome. Pain (2003) 102:87-95.
  • DESMEULES JA, CEDRASCHI C, RAPITI E et al.: Neurophysiologic evidence for a central sensitization in patients with fibromyalgia. Arthritis Rheum. (2003) 48:1420-1429.
  • SORENSEN J, GRAVEN-NIELSEN T, HENRIKSSON KG, BENGTSSON M, ARENDT-NIELSEN L: Hyperexcitability in fibromyalgia. J. Rheumatol. (1998) 25:152-155.
  • KOSEK E, EKHOLM J, HANSSON P: Modulation of pressure pain thresholds during and following isometric contraction in patients with fibromyalgia and in healthy controls. Pain (1996) 64:415-423.
  • STAUD R, VIERCK CJ, ROBINSON ME, PRICE DD: Overall fibromyalgia pain is predicted by ratings of local pain and pain related negative affect: possible role of peripheral tissues. Rheumatology (2006) 45:1409-1415.
  • BUSKILA D, NEUMANN L, VAISBERG G, ALKALAY D, WOLFE F: Increased rates of fibromyalgia following cervical spine injury. A controlled study of 161 cases of traumatic injury. Arthritis Rheum. (1997) 40:446-452.
  • PLESH O, WOLFE F, LANE N: The relationship between fibromyalgia and temporomandibular disorders: prevalence and symptom severity. J. Rheumatol. (1996) 23:1948-1952.
  • BENDTSEN L, JENSEN R, OLESEN J: Decreased pain detection and tolerance thresholds in chronic tension-type headache. Arch. Neurol. (1996) 53:373-376.
  • LAPOSSY E, MALEITZKE R, HRYCAJ P, MENNET W, MULLER W: The frequency of transition of chronic low back pain to fibromyalgia. Scand. J. Rheumatol. (1995) 24:29-33.
  • WHITEHEAD WE, PALSSON O, JONES KR: Systematic review of the comorbidity of irritable bowel syndrome with other disorders: what are the causes and implications? Gastroenterology (2002) 122:1140-1156.
  • CLAUW DJ, SCHMIDT M, RADULOVIC D, SINGER A, KATZ P, BRESETTE J: The relationship between fibromyalgia and interstitial cystitis. J. Psychiatry Res. (1997) 31:125-131.
  • WALEN HR, OLIVER K, GROESSL E, CRONAN TA, RODRIGUEZ VM: Traumatic events, health outcomes, and health care use in patients with fibromyalgia. J. Musculoskelet. Pain (2001) 9:19-38.
  • AL ALLAF AW, DUNBAR KL, HALLUM NS, NOSRATZADEH B, TEMPLETON KD, PULLAR T: A case-control study examining the role of physical trauma in the onset of fibromyalgia syndrome. Rheumatology (2002) 41:450-453.
  • BUSKILA D, NEUMANN L: The development of widespread pain after injuries. J. Musculoskelet. Pain (2002) 10:261-267.
  • WYNNE-JONES G, JONES GT, WILES NJ, SILMAN AJ, MACFARLANE GJ: Predicting new onset of widespread pain following a motor vehicle collision. J. Rheumatol. (2006) 33:968-974.
  • BANIC B, PETERSEN-FELIX S, ANDERSEN OK et al.: Evidence for spinal cord hypersensitivity in chronic pain after whiplash injury and in fibromyalgia. Pain (2004) 107:7-15.
  • RAPHAEL KG, MARBACH JJ, KLAUSNER J: Myofascial face pain. Clinical characteristics of those with regional vs. widespread pain. J. Am. Dent. Assoc. (2000) 131:161-171.
  • SLUKA KA, KALRA A, MOORE SA: Unilateral intramuscular injections of acidic saline produce a bilateral, long-lasting hyperalgesia. Muscle Nerve (2001) 24:37-46.
  • SLUKA KA, PRICE MP, BREESE NA, STUCKY CL, WEMMIE JA, WELSH MJ: Chronic hyperalgesia induced by repeated acid injections in muscle is abolished by the loss of ASIC3, but not ASIC1. Pain (2003) 106:229-239.
  • HANSSON P, EKBLOM A, LINDBLOM U, MARCHETTINI P: Does acute intraoral pain alter cutaneous sensibility? J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1988) 51:1032-1036.
  • MAIXNER W, FILLINGIM R, BOOKER D, SIGURDSSON A: Sensitivity of patients with painful temporomandibular disorders to experimentally evoked pain. Pain (1995) 63:341-351.
  • CURATOLO M, PETERSEN-FELIX S, ARENDT-NIELSEN L, GIANI C, ZBINDEN AM, RADANOV BP: Central hypersensitivity in chronic pain after whiplash injury. Clin. J. Pain (2001) 17:306-315.
  • OKIFUJI A, TURK DC: Stress and psychophysiological dysregulation in patients with fibromyalgia syndrome. Appl. Psychophysiol. Biofeedback (2002) 27:129-141.
  • BAJAJ P, BAJAJ P, MADSEN H, MOLLER M, ARENDT-NIELSEN L: Antenatal women with or without pelvic pain can be characterized by generalized or segmental hypoalgesia in late pregnancy. J. Pain (2002) 3:451-460.
  • STAUD R, RODRIGUEZ ME: Mechanisms of disease: pain in fibromyalgia syndrome. Nat. Clin. Pract. Rheumatol. (2006) 2:90-98.
  • CLAUW DJ, CHROUSOS GP: Chronic pain and fatigue syndromes: overlapping clinical and neuroendocrine features and potential pathogenic mechanisms. Neuroimmunomodulation (1997) 4:134-153.
  • USHIDA T, WILLIS WD: Changes in dorsal horn neuronal responses in an experimental wrist contracture model. J. Orthop. Sci. (2001) 6:46-52.
  • HOHEISEL U, KOCH K, MENSE S: Functional reorganization in the rat dorsal horn during an experimental myositis. Pain (1994) 59:111-118.
  • PRICE DD, MCHAFFIE JG, LARSON MA: Spatial summation of heat-induced pain: influence of stimulus area and spatial separation of stimuli on perceived pain sensation intensity and unpleasantness. J. Neurophysiol. (1989) 62:1270-1279.
  • STAUD R, VIERCK CJ, ROBINSON ME, PRICE DD: Spatial summation of heat pain within and across dermatomes in fibromyalgia patients and pain-free subjects. Pain (2004) 111:342-350.
  • JULIEN N, GOFFAUX P, ARSENAULT P, MARCHAND S: Widespread pain in fibromyalgia is related to a deficit of endogenous pain inhibition. Pain (2005) 114:295-302.
  • HERREN-GERBER R, WEISS S, ARENDT-NIELSEN L et al.: Modulation of central hypersensitivity by nociceptive input in chronic pain after whiplash injury. Pain Med. (2004) 5:366-376.
  • VERNE GN, ROBINSON ME, VASE L, PRICE DD: Reversal of visceral and cutaneous hyperalgesia by local rectal anesthesia in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) patients. Pain (2003) 105:223-230.
  • GIESECKE T, GRACELY RH, CLAUW DJ et al.: Central pain processing in chronic low back pain. Evidence for reduced pain inhibition. Schmerz (2006) 20:411-417.
  • PRICE DD, ZHOU Q, MOSHIREE B, VERNE GN: Peripheral and central contributions to hyperalgesia in the irritable bowel syndrome. J. Pain (2006) 7:529-535.
  • CHROUSOS GP, GOLD PW: The concepts of stress and stress system disorders. Overview of physical and behavioral homeostasis. JAMA (1992) 267:1244-1252.
  • CZEISLER CA, KLERMAN EB: Circadian and sleep-dependent regulation of hormone release in humans. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. (1999) 54:97-130.
  • SARLIS NJ, CHOWDREY HS, STEPHANOU A, LIGHTMAN SL: Chronic activation of the hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenal axis and loss of circadian rhythm during adjuvant-induced arthritis in the rat. Endocrinology (1992) 130:1775-1779.
  • CROFFORD LJ, YOUNG EA, ENGLEBERG NC et al.: Basal circadian and pulsatile ACTH and cortisol secretion in patients with fibromyalgia and/or chronic fatigue syndrome. Brain Behav. Immun. (2004) 18:314-325.
  • ADLER GK, GEENEN R: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal and autonomic nervous system functioning in fibromyalgia. Rheum. Dis. Clin. North Am. (2005) 31:187-202, xi.
  • ULAS U, UNLU E, HAMAMCIOGLU K, ODABASI Z, CAKCI A, VURAL O: Dysautonomia in fibromyalgia syndrome: sympathetic skin responses and RR interval analysis. Rheumatol. Int. (2006) 26:383-387.
  • JESCHONNECK M, GROHMANN G, HEIN G, SPROTT H: Abnormal microcirculation and temperature in skin above tender points in patients with fibromyalgia. Rheumatology (2000) 39:917-921.
  • COHEN H, NEUMANN L, SHORE M, AMIR M, CASSUTO Y, BUSKILA D: Autonomic dysfunction in patients with fibromyalgia: application of power spectral analysis of heart rate variability. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. (2000) 29:217-227.
  • BOU-HOLAIGAH I, CALKINS H, FLYNN JA et al.: Provocation of hypotension and pain during upright tilt table testing in adults with fibromyalgia. Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. (1997) 15:239-246.
  • FURLAN R, COLOMBO S, PEREGO F et al.: Abnormalities of cardiovascular neural control and reduced orthostatic tolerance in patients with primary fibromyalgia. J. Rheumatol. (2005) 32:1787-1793.
  • VAEROY H, QIAO ZG, MORKRID L, FORRE O: Altered sympathetic nervous system response in patients with fibromyalgia (fibrositis syndrome). J. Rheumatol. (1989) 16:1460-1465.
  • QIAO ZG, VAEROY H, MORKRID L: Electrodermal and microcirculatory activity in patients with fibromyalgia during baseline, acoustic stimulation and cold pressor tests. J. Rheumatol. (1991) 18:1383-1389.
  • DINERMAN H, GOLDENBERG DL, FELSON DT: A prospective evaluation of 118 patients with the fibromyalgia syndrome: prevalence of Raynaud's phenomenon, sicca symptoms, ANA, low complement, and Ig deposition at the dermal-epidermal junction. J. Rheumatol. (1986) 13:368-373.
  • BENNETT RM, CLARK SR, CAMPBELL SM et al.: Symptoms of Raynaud's syndrome in patients with fibromyalgia. A study utilizing the Nielsen test, digital photoplethysmography, and measurements of platelet α2-adrenergic receptors. Arthritis Rheum. (1991) 34:264-269.
  • GRASSI W, DE AR, LAPADULA G, LEARDINI G, SCARPA R: Clinical diagnosis found in patients with Raynaud's phenomenon: a multicentre study. Rheumatol. Int. (1998) 18:17-20.
  • COFFMAN JD, COHEN AS: Total and capillary fingertip blood flow in Raynaud's phenomenon. N. Engl. J. Med. (1971) 285:259-263.
  • JAMIESON GG, LUDBROOK J, WILSON A: Cold hypersenstivity in Raynaud's phenomenon. Circulation (1971) 44:254-264.
  • LAPOSSY E, GASSER P, HRYCAJ P, DUBLER B, SAMBORSKI W, MULLER W: Cold-induced vasospasm in patients with fibromyalgia and chronic low back pain in comparison to healthy subjects. Clin. Rheumatol. (1994) 13:442-445.
  • PRICE DD, BENNETT GJ, RAFII A: Psychophysical observations on patients with neuropathic pain relieved by a sympathetic block. Pain (1989) 36:273-288.
  • BERGLUND B, HARJU EL, KOSEK E, LINDBLOM U: Quantitative and qualitative perceptual analysis of cold dysesthesia and hyperalgesia in fibromyalgia. Pain (2002) 96:177-187.
  • DAVIS MC, ZAUTRA AJ, REICH JW: Vulnerability to stress among women in chronic pain from fibromyalgia and osteoarthritis. Ann. Behav. Med. (2001) 23:215-226.
  • MOLDOFSKY H, SCARISBRICK P, ENGLAND R, SMYTHE H: Musculosketal symptoms and non-REM sleep disturbance in patients with “fibrositis syndrome” and healthy subjects. Psychosom. Med. (1975) 37:341-351.
  • GOLDENBERG DL, BURCKHARDT C, CROFFORD L: Management of fibromyalgia syndrome. JAMA (2004) 292:2388-2395.
  • MCCAIN GA, BELL DA, MAI FM, HALLIDAY PD: A controlled study of the effects of a supervised cardiovascular fitness training program on the manifestations of primary fibromyalgia. Arthritis Rheum. (1988) 31:1135-1141.
  • GOWANS SE, DEHUECK A, VOSS S, RICHARDSON M: A randomized, controlled trial of exercise and education for individuals with fibromyalgia. Arthritis Care Res. (1999) 12:120-128.
  • JENTOFT ES, KVALVIK AG, MENGSHOEL M: Effects of pool-based and land-based aerobic exercise on women with fibromyalgia/chronic widespread muscle pain. Arthritis Care Res. (2001) 45:42-47.
  • DONMEZ A, KARAGULLE MZ, TERCAN N et al.: SPA therapy in fibromyalgia: a randomised controlled clinic study. Rheumatol. Int. (2005) 26:168-172.
  • JONES KD, ADAMS D, WINTERS-STONE K, BURCKHARDT CS: A comprehensive review of 46 exercise treatment studies in fibromyalgia (1988–2005). Health Qual. Life Outcomes (2006) 4:67-73.
  • DELUZE C, BOSIA L, ZIRBS A, CHANTRAINE A, VISCHER TL: Electroacupuncture in fibromyalgia: results of a controlled trial. BMJ (1992) 305:1249-1252.
  • HARRIS RE, TIAN X, WILLIAMS DA et al.: Treatment of fibromyalgia with formula acupuncture: investigation of needle placement, needle stimulation, and treatment frequency. J. Altern. Complement. Med. (2005) 11:663-671.
  • ASSEFI NP, SHERMAN KJ, JACOBSEN C, GOLDBERG J, SMITH WR, BUCHWALD D: A randomized clinical trial of acupuncture compared with sham acupuncture in fibromyalgia. Ann. Intern. Med. (2005) 143:10-19.
  • BRATTBERG G: Connective tissue massage in the treatment of fibromyalgia. Eur. J. Pain (1999) 3:235-244.
  • ALMEIDA TF, ROIZENBLATT S, BENEDITO-SILVA AA, TUFIK S: The effect of combined therapy (ultrasound and interferential current) on pain and sleep in fibromyalgia. Pain (2003) 104:665-672.
  • BUSKILA D, ABU-SHAKRA M, NEUMANN L et al.: Balneotherapy for fibromyalgia at the dead sea. Rheumatol. Int. (2001) 20:105-108.
  • GOLDENBERG DL: Update on the treatment of fibromyalgia. Bull. Rheum. Dis. (2004) 53:1-7.
  • ARNOLD LM, KECK PE Jr, WELGE JA: Antidepressant treatment of fibromyalgia: a meta-analysis and review. Psychosomatics (2000) 41:104-113.
  • O'MALLEY PG, BALDEN E, TOMKINS G, SANTORO J, KROENKE K, JACKSON JL: Treatment of fibromyalgia with antidepressants. A meta-analysis. J. Gen. Intern. Med. (2000) 15:659-666.
  • ANDERBERG UM, MARTEINSDOTTIR I, VON-KNORRING L: Citalopram in patients with fibromyalgia – a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Eur. J. Pain (2000) 4:27-35.
  • OZERBIL O, OKUDAN N, GOKBEL H, LEVENDOGLU F: Comparison of the effects of two antidepressants on exercise performance of the female patients with fibromyalgia. Clin. Rheumatol. (2006) 25:495-497.
  • MICO JA, ARDID D, BERROCOSO E, ESCHALIER A: Antidepressants and pain. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. (2006) 27:348-354.
  • EVREN B, EVREN C, GULER MH: An open clinical trial of venlafaxine in the treatment of pain, depressive and anxiety symptoms in fibromyalgia. Pain Clinic (2006) 18:167-173.
  • ARNOLD LM, LU YL, CROFFORD LJ et al.: A double-blind, multicenter trial comparing duloxetine with placebo in the treatment of fibromyalgia patients with or without major depressive disorder. Arthritis Rheum. (2004) 50:2974-2984.
  • TOFFERI JK, JACKSON JL, O'MALLEY PG: Treatment of fibromyalgia with cyclobenzaprine: a meta-analysis. Arthritis Rheum. (2004) 51:9-13.
  • CHILDERS MK, BORENSTEIN D, BROWN RL et al.: Low-dose cyclobenzaprine versus combination therapy with ibuprofen for acute neck or back pain with muscle spasm: a randomized trial. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. (2005) 21:1485-1493.
  • XAIO Y, MICHALEK JE, RUSSELL IJ: Effects of tizanidine on cerebrospinal fluid substance P in patients with fibromyalgia. In: α-2 Adrenergic Agonists: Evidence and Experience Examined. Saper JR (Ed.), The Royal Society of Medicine Press, The Trinity Press, Worcester, UK (2002):23-28.
  • RAFFA RB, FRIDERICHS E, REIMANN W, SHANK RP, CODD EE, VAUGHT JL: Opioid and non-opioid components independently contribute to the mechanism of action of tramadol, an ‘atypical’ opioid analgesic. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. (1992) 260:275-285.
  • TALLARIDA RJ, RAFFA RB: Testing for synergism over a range of fixed ratio drug combinations: replacing the isobologram. Life Sci. (1996) 58:L8.
  • BENNETT RM, KAMIN M, KARIM R, ROSENTHAL N: Tramadol and acetaminophen combination tablets in the treatment of fibromyalgia pain: a double-blind, randomized, placlebo-controlled study. Am. J. Med. (2003) 114:537-545.
  • RUSSELL IJ, FLETCHER EM, MICHALEK JE, MCBROOM PC, HESTER GG: Treatment of primary fibrositis/fibromyalgia syndrome with ibuprofen and alprazolam. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arthritis Rheum. (1991) 34:552-560.
  • WIFFEN P, COLLINS S, MCQUAY H, CARROLL D, JADAD A, MOORE A: Anticonvulsant drugs for acute and chronic pain. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (2005):CD001133.
  • FISHBAIN DA, CUTLER RB, ROSOMOFF HL, ROSOMOFF RS: Clonazepam open clinical treatment trial for myofascial syndrome associated chronic pain. Pain Med. (2000) 1:332-339.
  • ROWBOTHAM MC, REISNER-KELLER LA, FIELDS HL: Both intravenous lidocaine and morphine reduce the pain of postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology (1991) 41:1024-1028.
  • VIOLA V, NEWNHAM HH, SIMPSON RW: Treatment of intractable painful diabetic neuropathy with intravenous lignocaine. J. Diabetes Complications (2006) 20:34-39.
  • EDWARDS WT, HABIB F, BURNEY RG, BEGIN G: Intravenous lidocaine in the management of various chronic pain states: a review of 211 cases. Reg. Anaesth. (1985) 10:1-6.
  • SORENSEN J, BENGTSSON A, BACKMAN E, HENRIKSSON KG, BENGTSSON M: Pain analysis in patients with fibromyalgia. Effects of intravenous morphine, lidocaine, and ketamine. Scand. J. Rheumatol. (1995) 24:360-365.
  • BENNETT MI, TAI YM: Intravenous lignocaine in the management of primary fibromyalgia syndrome. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Res. (1995) 15:115-119.
  • SPATH M, STRATZ T, NEECK G et al.: Efficacy and tolerability of intravenous tropisetron in the treatment of fibromyalgia. Scand. J. Rheumatol. (2004) 33:267-270.
  • CARUSO I, SARZI-PUTTINI P, CAZZOLA M, AZZOLINI V: Double-blind study of 5-hydroxytryptophan versus placebo in the treatment of primary fibromyalgia syndrome. J. Int. Med. Res. (1990) 18:201-209.
  • YUNUS MB, MASI AT, ALDAG JC: Short term effects of ibuprofen in primary fibromyalgia syndrome: a double blind, placebo controlled trial. J. Rheumatol. (1989) 16:527-532.
  • GOLDENBERG DL, FELSON DT, DINERMAN H: A randomized, controlled trial of amitriptyline and naproxen in the treatment of patients with fibromyalgia. Arthritis Rheum. (1986) 29:1371-1377.
  • CLARK S, TINDALL E, BENNETT RM: A double blind crossover trial of prednisone versus placebo in the treatment of fibrositis. J. Rheumatol. (1985) 12:980-983.
  • MOLDOFSKY H, LUE FA, MOUSLY C, ROTH-SCHECHTER B, REYNOLDS WJ: The effect of zolpidem in patients with fibromyalgia: a dose ranging, double blind, placebo controlled, modified crossover study. J. Rheumatol. (1996) 23:529-533.
  • GRONBLAD M, NYKANEN J, KONTTINEN Y, JARVINEN E, HELVE T: Effect of zopiclone on sleep quality, morning stiffness, widespread tenderness and pain and general discomfort in primary fibromyalgia patients. A double-blind randomized trial. Clin. Rheumatol. (1993) 12:186-191.
  • JENSEN TS: Anticonvulsants in neuropathic pain: rationale and clinical evidence. Eur. J. Pain (2002) 6:61-68.
  • CROFFORD LJ, ROWBOTHAM MC, MEASE PJ et al.: Pregabalin for the treatment of fibromyalgia syndrome: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum. (2005) 52:1264-1273.
  • ARNOLD LM, GOLDENBERG DL, STANFORD SB et al.: Gabapentin in the treatment of fibromyalgia. Arthritis Rheum. (2006) 54:2109.
  • IYENGAR S, WEBSTER AA, HEMRICK-LUECKE SK, XU JY, SIMMONS RMA: Efficacy of duloxetine, a potent and balanced serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor in persistent pain models in rats. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. (2004) 311:576-584.
  • ARNOLD LM, ROSEN A, PRITCHETT YL et al.: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of duloxetine in the treatment of women with fibromyalgia with or without major depressive disorder. Pain (2005) 119:5-15.
  • SAYAR K, AKSU G, AK I, TOSUN M: Venlafaxine treatment of fibromyalgia. Ann. Pharmacother. (2003) 37:1561-1565.
  • KRANZLER JD, GENDREAU JF, RAO SG: The psychopharmacology of fibromyalgia: a drug development perspective. Psychopharmacol. Bull. (2002) 36:165-213.
  • VITTON O, GENDREAU M, GENDREAU J, KRANZLER J, RAO SG: A double-blind placebo-controlled trial of milnacipran in the treatment of fibromyalgia. Hum. Psychopharmacol. (2004) 19:S27-S35.
  • HOLMAN AJ: Ropinirole, open preliminary observations of a dopamine agonist for refractory fibromyalgia. J. Clin. Rheumatol. (2003) 9:277-279.
  • ADLER GK, MANFREDSDOTTIR VF, RACKOW RM: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis function in fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome. Endocrinologist (2002) 12:513-524.
  • WOOD PB, PATTERSON JC, SUNDERLAND JJ, TAINTER KH, GLABUS MF, LILIEN DL: Reduced presynaptic dopamine activity in fibromyalgia syndrome demonstrated with positron emission tomography: a pilot study. J. Pain (2007) 8:51-58.
  • LOPEZ JF, AKIL H, WATSON SJ: Neural circuits mediating stress. Biol. Psychiatry (1999) 46:1461-1471.
  • WOOD PB: Fibromyalgia syndrome: a central role for the hippocampus – a theoretical construct. J. Musculoskel. Pain (2004) 12:19-26.
  • KUSHIDA CA: Pramipexole for the treatment of restless legs syndrome. Expert Opin. Pharmacother. (2006) 7(4):441-451.
  • HOLMAN AJ, MYERS RR: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of pramipexole, a dopamine agonist, in patients with fibromyalgia receiving concomitant medications. Arthritis Rheum. (2005) 52:2495-2505.
  • CODERRE TJ, KATZ J, VACCARINO AL, MELZACK R: Contribution of central neuroplasticity to pathological pain: review of clinical and experimental evidence. Pain (1993) 52:259-285.
  • DOUGHERTY PM, PALECEK J, PALECKOVA V, SORKIN LS, WILLIS WD: The role of NMDA and non-NMDA excitatory amino acid receptors in the excitation of primate spinothalamic tract neurons by mechanical, chemical, thermal, and electrical stimuli. J. Neurosci. (1992). 12:3025-3041.
  • PRICE DD, MAO J, MAYER DJ: Central consequences of persistent pain states. In: Proceedings of the 8th World Congress on Pain, Progress in Pain Research and Management. Jensen TS, Turner JA, Wiesenfeld-Hallin Z (Eds), IASP Press, Seattle, USA (1997) 8:155-184.
  • WOOLF CJ, SALTER MW: Neuronal plasticity: increasing the gain in pain. Science (2000) 288:1765-1769.
  • STAUD R, VIERCK CJ, ROBINSON ME, PRICE DD: Effects of the NDMA receptor antagonist dextromethorphan on temporal summation of pain are similar in fibromyalgia patients and normal controls. J. Pain (2005) 6:323-332.
  • MACFARLANE JG, SHAHAL B, MOUSLY C, MOLDOFSKY H: Periodic K-α sleep EEG activity and periodic limb movements during sleep: comparisons of clinical features and sleep parameters. Sleep (1996) 19:200-204.
  • SCHARF MB, BAUMANN M, BERKOWITZ DV: The effects of sodium oxybate on clinical symptoms and sleep patterns in patients with fibromyalgia. J. Rheumatol. (2003) 30:1070-1074.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.