1,393
Views
124
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Research

Potential of the test-negative design for measuring influenza vaccine effectiveness: a systematic review

, &

References

  • Barr IG, McCauley J, Cox N, et al. Epidemiological, antigenic and genetic characteristics of seasonal influenza A(H1N1), A(H3N2) and B influenza viruses: basis for the WHO recommendation on the composition of influenza vaccines for use in the 2009-2010 Northern Hemisphere season. Vaccine 2009;28:1156-67
  • Wood JM, Levandowski RA. The influenza vaccine licensing process. Vaccine 2003;21:1786-8
  • Smith PG, Rodrigues LC, Fine PE. Assessment of the protective efficacy of vaccines against common diseases using case-control and cohort studies. Int J Epidemiol 1984;13:87-93
  • Jackson LA, Jackson ML, Nelson JC, et al. Evidence of bias in estimates of influenza vaccine effectiveness in seniors. Int J Epidemiol 2006;35:337-44
  • Foppa IM, Haber M, Ferdinands JM, Shay DK. The case test-negative design for studies of the effectiveness of influenza vaccine. Vaccine 2013;31:3104-9
  • Jackson ML, Nelson JC. The test-negative design for estimating influenza vaccine effectiveness. Vaccine 2013;31:2165-8
  • Orenstein EW, De Serres G, Haber MJ, et al. Methodologic issues regarding the use of three observational study designs to assess influenza vaccine effectiveness. Int J Epidemiol 2007;36:623-31
  • De Serres G, Skowronski DM, Wu XW, Ambrose CS. The test-negative design: validity, accuracy and precision of vaccine efficacy estimates compared to the gold standard of randomised placebo-controlled clinical trials. Vaccine 2013;18
  • CIDRAP. Available from: www.cidrap.umn.edu
  • Poole C, Greenland S. Random-effects meta-analyses are not always conservative. Am J Epidemiol 1999;150:469-75
  • Higgins JP, Thompson SG. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Stat med 2002;21:1539-58
  • Amour S, Voirin N, Regis C, et al. Influenza vaccine effectiveness among adult patients in a University of Lyon hospital (2004-2009). Vaccine 2012;30:821-4
  • Andrews N, McMenamin J, Durnall H, et al. Effectiveness of trivalent seasonal influenza vaccine in preventing laboratory-confirmed influenza in primary care in the United Kingdom: 2012/13 end of season results. Euro Surveill 2014;19:5-13
  • Andrews N, Waight P, Yung CF, Miller E. Age-specific effectiveness of an oil-in-water adjuvanted pandemic (H1N1) 2009 vaccine against confirmed infection in high risk groups in England. J Infect Dis 2011;203:32-9
  • Barret AS, Donnell JO, O’Hora A, et al. Effectiveness of 2010/2011 seasonal influenza vaccine in Ireland. Irish Med J 2012;105:39-42
  • Bateman AC, Kieke BA, Irving SA, et al. Effectiveness of monovalent 2009 pandemic influenza A virus subtype H1N1 and 2010-2011 trivalent inactivated influenza vaccines in Wisconsin during the 2010-2011 influenza season. J Infect Dis 2013;207:1262-9
  • Belongia EA, Kieke BA, Donahue JG, et al. Influenza vaccine effectiveness in Wisconsin during the 2007-08 season: comparison of interim and final results. Vaccine 2011;29:6558-63
  • Belongia EA, Kieke BA, Donahue JG, et al. Effectiveness of inactivated influenza vaccines varied substantially with antigenic match from the 2004-2005 season to the 2006-2007 season. J Infect Dis 2009;199:159-67
  • Blyth CC, Jacoby P, Effler PV, et al. Effectiveness of Trivalent Flu Vaccine in Healthy Young Children. Pediatrics 2014; 32:4075-81
  • Castilla J, Martinez-Artola V, Salcedo E, et al. Vaccine effectiveness in preventing influenza hospitalizations in Navarre, Spain, 2010-2011: cohort and case-control study. Vaccine 2012;30:195-200
  • Castilla J, Martinez-Baz I, Martinez-Artola V, et al. Decline in influenza vaccine effectiveness with time after vaccination, Navarre, Spain, season 2011/12. Euro Surveill 2013;18 pii=20388
  • Castilla J, Moran J, Martinez-Artola V, et al. Effectiveness of the monovalent influenza A(H1N1)2009 vaccine in Navarre, Spain, 2009-2010: cohort and case-control study. Vaccine 2011;29:5919-24
  • Cheng AC, Flu CANI. Hospitalisation with confirmed influenza in a sentinel surveillance system in 2010 and 2011. Med J Aust 2012;197:217
  • Cheng AC, Kotsimbos T, Kelly HA, et al. Effectiveness of H1N1/09 monovalent and trivalent influenza vaccines against hospitalization with laboratory-confirmed H1N1/09 influenza in Australia: a test-negative case control study. Vaccine 2011;29:7320-5
  • Coleman LA, Kieke B, Irving S, et al. Comparison of influenza vaccine effectiveness using different methods of case detection: clinician-ordered rapid antigen tests vs. active surveillance and testing with real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). Vaccine 2011;29:387-90
  • Cowling BJ, Chan KH, Feng S, et al. The effectiveness of influenza vaccination in preventing hospitalizations in children in Hong Kong, 2009-2013. Vaccine 2014;32:5278-84
  • Dawood FS, Prapasiri P, Areerat P, et al. Effectiveness of the 2010 and 2011 Southern Hemisphere trivalent inactivated influenza vaccines against hospitalization with influenza-associated acute respiratory infection among Thai adults aged >/= 50 years. Influenza Other Respir Vir 2014;8:463-8
  • Eick-Cost AA, Tastad KJ, Guerrero AC, et al. Effectiveness of seasonal influenza vaccines against influenza-associated illnesses among US military personnel in 2010-11: a case-control approach. PLoS One 2012;7:e41435
  • Eisenberg KW, Szilagyi PG, Fairbrother G, et al. Vaccine effectiveness against laboratory-confirmed influenza in children 6 to 59 months of age during the 2003-2004 and 2004-2005 influenza seasons. Pediatrics 2008;122:911-19
  • Englund H, Campe H, Hautmann W. Effectiveness of trivalent and monovalent influenza vaccines against laboratory-confirmed influenza infection in persons with medically attended influenza-like illness in Bavaria, Germany, 2010/2011 season. Epidemiol Infect 2013;141:1807-15
  • Ferdinands JM, Olsho LE, Agan AA, et al. Effectiveness of Influenza Vaccine Against Life-threatening RT-PCR-confirmed Influenza Illness in US Children, 2010-2012. J Infect Dis 2014;210(5):674-83
  • Fielding J, Grant K, Tran T, Kelly H. Moderate influenza vaccine effectiveness in Victoria, Australia, 2011. Euro Surveill 2012;17: pii=20115. Epub 15 March 2012
  • Fielding JE, Grant KA, Garcia K, Kelly HA. Effectiveness of seasonal influenza vaccine against pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus, Australia, 2010. Emerg Infect Dis 2011;17:1181-7
  • Fielding JE, Grant KA, Papadakis G, Kelly HA. Estimation of type- and subtype-specific influenza vaccine effectiveness in Victoria, Australia using a test negative case control method, 2007-2008. BMC Infect Dis 2011;11:170
  • Fleming DM, Andrews NJ, Ellis JS, et al. Estimating influenza vaccine effectiveness using routinely collected laboratory data. J Epidemiol Community Health 2010;64:1062-7
  • Gefenaite G, Rahamat-Langendoen J, Ambrozaitis A, et al. Seasonal influenza vaccine effectiveness against influenza in 2012-2013: a hospital-based case-control study in Lithuania. Vaccine 2014;32:857-63
  • Griffin MR, Monto AS, Belongia EA, et al. Effectiveness of non-adjuvanted pandemic influenza A vaccines for preventing pandemic influenza acute respiratory illness visits in 4 U.S. communities. PLoS One 2011;6:e23085
  • Hardelid P, Fleming DM, McMenamin J, et al. Effectiveness of pandemic and seasonal influenza vaccine in preventing pandemic influenza A(H1N1)2009 infection in England and Scotland 2009-2010. Euro Surveill 2011;16
  • Hellenbrand W, Jorgensen P, Schweiger B, et al. Prospective hospital-based case-control study to assess the effectiveness of pandemic influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 vaccination and risk factors for hospitalization in 2009-2010 using matched hospital and test-negative controls. BMC Infect Dis 2012;12:127
  • Ho HP, Zhao X, Pang J, et al. Effectiveness of seasonal influenza vaccinations against laboratory-confirmed influenza-associated infections among Singapore military personnel in 2010-2013. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2014;8(5):557-66
  • Janjua NZ, Skowronski DM, De Serres G, et al. Estimates of influenza vaccine effectiveness for 2007-2008 from Canada’s sentinel surveillance system: cross-protection against major and minor variants. J Infect Dis 2012;205:1858-68
  • Jefferies S, Earl D, Berry N, et al. Effectiveness of the 2009 seasonal influenza vaccine against pandemic influenza A(H1N1)2009 in healthcare workers in New Zealand, June-August 2009. Euro Surveill 2011;16
  • Jimenez-Jorge S, de Mateo S, Delgado-Sanz C, et al. Effectiveness of influenza vaccine against laboratory-confirmed influenza, in the late 2011-2012 season in Spain, among population targeted for vaccination. BMC Infect Dis 2013;13:441
  • Jimenez-Jorge S, Savulescu C, Pozo F, et al. Effectiveness of the 2010-11 seasonal trivalent influenza vaccine in Spain: cycEVA study. Vaccine 2012;30:3595-602
  • Kafatos G, Pebody R, Andrews N, et al. Effectiveness of seasonal influenza vaccine in preventing medically attended influenza infection in England and Wales during the 2010/2011 season: a primary care-based cohort study. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2013;7:1175-80
  • Kelly H, Carville K, Grant K, et al. Estimation of influenza vaccine effectiveness from routine surveillance data. PLoS One 2009;4:e5079
  • Kelly H, Jacoby P, Dixon GA, et al. Vaccine Effectiveness Against Laboratory-confirmed Influenza in Healthy Young Children: a Case-Control Study. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2011;30:107-11
  • Kelly HA, Grant KA, Fielding JE, et al. Pandemic influenza H1N1 2009 infection in Victoria, Australia: No evidence for harm or benefit following receipt of seasonal influenza vaccine in 2009. Vaccine 2011;29:6419-26
  • Kissling E, Valenciano M, Buchholz U, et al. Influenza vaccine effectiveness estimates in Europe in a season with three influenza type/subtypes circulating: the I-MOVE multicentre case-control study, influenza season 2012/13. Euro Surveill 2014;19
  • Kissling E, Valenciano M, Cohen JM, et al. I-MOVE multi-centre case control study 2010-11: overall and stratified estimates of influenza vaccine effectiveness in Europe. PLoS One 2011;6:e27622
  • Kissling E, Valenciano M, Falcao J, et al. “I-MOVE” towards monitoring seasonal and pandemic influenza vaccine effectiveness: lessons learnt from a pilot multi-centric case-control study in Europe, 2008-9. Euro Surveill 2009;14
  • Kissling E, Valenciano M, Larrauri A, et al. Low and decreasing vaccine effectiveness against influenza A(H3) in 2011/12 among vaccination target groups in Europe: results from the I-MOVE multicentre case-control study. Euro Surveill 2013;18: pii=20390
  • Kwong JC, Campitelli MA, Gubbay JB, et al. Vaccine effectiveness against laboratory-confirmed influenza hospitalizations among elderly adults during the 2010-2011 season. Clin Infect Dis 2013;57:820-7
  • Larrauri A, Savulescu C, Jimenez-Jorge S, et al. Influenza pandemic (H1N1) 2009 activity during summer 2009. Effectiveness of the 2008-9 trivalent vaccine against pandemic influenza in Spain. Gac Sanit 2011;25:23-8
  • Lo YC, Chuang JH, Kuo HW, et al. Surveillance and vaccine effectiveness of an influenza epidemic predominated by vaccine-mismatched influenza B/Yamagata-lineage viruses in Taiwan, 2011-12 season. PLoS One 2013;8:e58222
  • Mahmud S, Hammond G, Elliott L, et al. Effectiveness of the pandemic H1N1 influenza vaccines against laboratory-confirmed H1N1 infections: population-based case-control study. Vaccine 2011;29:7975-81
  • Mahmud SM, Van Caeseele P, Hammond G, et al. No association between 2008-09 influenza vaccine and influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 virus infection, Manitoba, Canada, 2009. Emerg Infect Dis 2012;18:801-10
  • Martinez-Baz I, Martinez-Artola V, Reina G, et al. Effectiveness of the trivalent influenza vaccine in Navarre, Spain, 2010-2011: a population-based test-negative case-control study. BMC Public Health 2013;13:191
  • Menniti-Ippolito F, Da Cas R, Traversa G, et al. Vaccine effectiveness against severe laboratory-confirmed influenza in children: results of two consecutive seasons in Italy. Vaccine 2014;32:4466-70
  • Nunes B, Machado A, Guiomar R, et al. Estimates of 2012/13 influenza vaccine effectiveness using the case test-negative control design with different influenza negative control groups. Vaccine 2014;32:4443-9
  • Ohmit SE, Petrie JG, Malosh RE, et al. Influenza vaccine effectiveness in the community and the household. Clin Infect Dis 2013;56:1363-9
  • Ortqvist A, Bennet R, Rinder MR, et al. Effectiveness of the monovalent AS03-adjuvanted influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 vaccine against hospitalization in children because of influenza. Vaccine 2012;30:5699-702
  • Pebody R, Andrews N, McMenamin J, et al. Vaccine effectiveness of 2011/12 trivalent seasonal influenza vaccine in preventing laboratory-confirmed influenza in primary care in the United Kingdom: evidence of waning intra-seasonal protection. Euro Surveill 2013;18
  • Pebody R, Andrews N, Waight P, et al. No effect of 2008/09 seasonal influenza vaccination on the risk of pandemic H1N1 2009 influenza infection in England. Vaccine 2011;29:2613-18
  • Pebody R, Hardelid P, Fleming D, et al. Effectiveness of seasonal 2010/11 and pandemic influenza A(H1N1)2009 vaccines in preventing influenza infection in the United Kingdom: mid-season analysis 2010/11. Euro Surveill 2011;16
  • Puig-Barberà J, Arnedo-Pena A, Pardo-Serrano F, et al. Effectiveness of seasonal 2008-2009, 2009-2010 and pandemic vaccines, to prevent influenza hospitalizations during the autumn 2009 influenza pandemic wave in Castellon, Spain. A test-negative, hospital-based, case-control study. Vaccine 2010;28:7460-7
  • Puig-Barbera J, Diez-Domingo J, Arnedo-Pena A, et al. Effectiveness of the 2010-2011 seasonal influenza vaccine in preventing confirmed influenza hospitalizations in adults: a case-case comparison, case-control study. Vaccine 2012;30:5714-20
  • Puig-Barbera J, Natividad-Sancho A, Launay O, et al. 2012-2013 Seasonal Influenza Vaccine Effectiveness against Influenza Hospitalizations: results from the Global Influenza Hospital Surveillance Network. PLoS One 2014;9:e100497
  • Rondy M, Puig-Barbera J, Launay O, et al. 2011-12 seasonal influenza vaccines effectiveness against confirmed A(H3N2) influenza hospitalisation: pooled analysis from a European network of hospitals. A pilot study. PLoS One 2013;8:e59681
  • Savulescu C, Jimenez-Jorge S, de Mateo S, et al. Using surveillance data to estimate pandemic vaccine effectiveness against laboratory confirmed influenza A(H1N1)2009 infection: two case-control studies, Spain, season 2009-2010. BMC Public Health 2011;11:899
  • Savulescu C, Jimenez-Jorge S, Delgado-Sanz C, et al. Higher vaccine effectiveness in seasons with predominant circulation of seasonal influenza A(H1N1) than in A(H3N2) seasons: test-negative case-control studies using surveillance data, Spain, 2003-2011. Vaccine 2014;32:4404-11
  • Savulescu C, Valenciano M, de Mateo S, Larrauri A. Estimating the influenza vaccine effectiveness in elderly on a yearly basis using the Spanish influenza surveillance network – pilot case-control studies using different control groups, 2008-2009 season, Spain. Vaccine 2010;28:2903-7
  • Skowronski D, Gilbert M, Tweed S, et al. Effectiveness of vaccine against medical consultation due to laboratory-confirmed influenza: results from a sentinel physician pilot project in British Columbia, 2004–2005. Can Commun Dis Rep 2005;31:181-91
  • Skowronski DM, De Serres G, Crowcroft NS, et al. Association between the 2008-09 seasonal influenza vaccine and pandemic H1N1 illness during Spring-Summer 2009: four observational studies from Canada. PLoS Med 2010;7:e1000258
  • Skowronski DM, De Serres G, Dickinson J, et al. Component-specific effectiveness of trivalent influenza vaccine as monitored through a sentinel surveillance network in Canada, 2006-2007. J Infect Dis 2009;199:168-79
  • Skowronski DM, Janjua NZ, De Serres G, et al. Effectiveness of AS03 adjuvanted pandemic H1N1 vaccine: case-control evaluation based on sentinel surveillance system in Canada, autumn 2009. BMJ 2011;342:c7297
  • Skowronski DM, Janjua NZ, De Serres G, et al. A sentinel platform to evaluate influenza vaccine effectiveness and new variant circulation, Canada 2010-11 season. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55:332-42
  • Skowronski DM, Janjua NZ, Sabaiduc S, et al. Influenza A/subtype and B/lineage effectiveness estimates for the 2011-2012 trivalent vaccine: cross-season and cross-lineage protection with unchanged vaccine. J Infect Dis 2014;210(1):126-37
  • Skowronski DM, Masaro C, Kwindt TL, et al. Estimating vaccine effectiveness against laboratory-confirmed influenza using a sentinel physician network: results from the 2005-2006 season of dual A and B vaccine mismatch in Canada. Vaccine 2007;25:2842-51
  • Song JY, Cheong HJ, Heo JY, et al. Effectiveness of the pandemic influenza A/H1N1 2009 monovalent vaccine in Korea. Vaccine 2011;29:1395-8
  • Staat MA, Griffin MR, Donauer S, et al. Vaccine effectiveness for laboratory-confirmed influenza in children 6-59 months of age, 2005-2007. Vaccine 2011;29:9005-11
  • Sullivan SG, Chilver MB, Higgins G, et al. Influenza vaccine effectiveness in Australia: results from the Australian Sentinel Practices Research Network. Med J Aust 2014;201:109-11
  • Sullivan SG, Komadina N, Grant K, et al. Influenza vaccine effectiveness during the 2012 influenza season in Victoria, Australia: influences of waning immunity and vaccine match. J Med Virol 2014;86:1017-25
  • Sundaram ME, McClure DL, VanWormer JJ, et al. Influenza vaccination is not associated with detection of noninfluenza respiratory viruses in seasonal studies of influenza vaccine effectiveness. Clin Infect Dis 2013;57:789-93
  • Suzuki M, Minh le N, Yoshimine H, et al. Vaccine effectiveness against medically attended laboratory-confirmed influenza in Japan, 2011-2012 Season. PLoS One 2014;9:e88813
  • Suzuki M, Yoshimine H, Harada Y, et al. Estimating the influenza vaccine effectiveness against medically attended influenza in clinical settings: a hospital-based case-control study with a rapid diagnostic test in Japan. PLoS One 2013;8:e52103
  • Talbot HK, Griffin MR, Chen Q, et al. Effectiveness of seasonal vaccine in preventing confirmed influenza-associated hospitalizations in community dwelling older adults. J Infect Dis 2011;203:500-8
  • Talbot HK, Zhu Y, Chen Q, et al. Effectiveness of influenza vaccine for preventing laboratory-confirmed influenza hospitalizations in adults, 2011-2012 influenza season. Clin Infect Dis 2013;56:1774-7
  • Thompson MG, Li DK, Shifflett P, et al. Effectiveness of seasonal trivalent influenza vaccine for preventing influenza virus illness among pregnant women: a population-based case-control study during the 2010-2011 and 2011-2012 influenza seasons. Clin Infect Dis 2014;58:449-57
  • Treanor JJ, Talbot HK, Ohmit SE, et al. Effectiveness of seasonal influenza vaccines in the United States during a season with circulation of all three vaccine strains. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55:951-9
  • Turner N, Pierse N, Bissielo A, et al. The effectiveness of seasonal trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine in preventing laboratory confirmed influenza hospitalisations in Auckland, New Zealand in 2012. Vaccine 2014;32:3687-93
  • Uphoff H, An der Heiden M, Schweiger B, et al. Effectiveness of the AS03-adjuvanted vaccine against pandemic influenza virus A/(H1N1) 2009 – a comparison of two methods; Germany, 2009/10. PLoS One 2011;6:e19932
  • Valenciano M, Kissling E, Cohen JM, et al. Estimates of pandemic influenza vaccine effectiveness in Europe, 2009-2010: results of Influenza Monitoring Vaccine Effectiveness in Europe (I-MOVE) multicentre case-control study. PLoS Med 2011;8:e1000388
  • Van Buynder PG, Dhaliwal JK, Van Buynder JL, et al. Protective effect of single-dose adjuvanted pandemic influenza vaccine in children. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2010;4:171-8
  • Van Buynder PG, Konrad S, Van Buynder JL, et al. The comparative effectiveness of adjuvanted and unadjuvanted trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine (TIV) in the elderly. Vaccine 2013;31:6122-8
  • Yang P, Thompson MG, Ma C, et al. Influenza vaccine effectiveness against medically-attended influenza illness during the 2012-2013 season in Beijing, China. Vaccine 2014;32:5285-9
  • Ohmit SE, Thompson MG, Petrie JG, et al. Influenza vaccine effectiveness in the 2011-2012 season: protection against each circulating virus and the effect of prior vaccination on estimates. Clin Infect Dis 2014;58:319-27
  • Nicol KL. Efficacy/clinical effectiveness of inactivated influenza virus vaccines in adults. In: Nicholson KG, Webster RG, Hay AJ, editors. Textbook of influenza. Wiley & Sons Inc; Malden, MA, USA: 1998. p. 359-72
  • Sullivan SG, Tay EL, Kelly H. Variable definitions of the influenza season and their impact on vaccine effectiveness estimates. Vaccine 2013;31:4280-3
  • Sullivan SG, Komadina N, Grant K, et al. Influenza vaccine effectiveness during the 2012 influenza season in Victoria, Australia: Influences of waning immunity and vaccine match. J Med Virol 2014;86(6):1017-25
  • Covalciuc KA, Webb KH, Carlson CA. Comparison of four clinical specimen types for detection of influenza A and B viruses by optical immunoassay (FLU OIA test) and cell culture methods. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37:3971-4
  • Lambert SB, Whiley DM, O’Neill NT, et al. Comparing nose-throat swabs and nasopharyngeal aspirates collected from children with symptoms for respiratory virus identification using real-time polymerase chain reaction. Pediatrics 2008;122:e615-20
  • Chan KH, Peiris JS, Lim W, et al. Comparison of nasopharyngeal flocked swabs and aspirates for rapid diagnosis of respiratory viruses in children. J Clin Virol 2008;42:65-9
  • Sung RY, Chan PK, Choi KC, et al. Comparative study of nasopharyngeal aspirate and nasal swab specimens for diagnosis of acute viral respiratory infection. J Clin Microbiol 2008;46:3073-6
  • Carrat F, Vergu E, Ferguson NM, et al. Time lines of infection and disease in human influenza: a review of volunteer challenge studies. Am J Epidemiol 2008;167:775-85
  • Lau LL, Cowling BJ, Fang VJ, et al. Viral shedding and clinical illness in naturally acquired influenza virus infections. J Infect Dis 2010;201:1509-16
  • Pebody RG, Andrews N, Fleming DM, et al. Age-specific vaccine effectiveness of seasonal 2010/2011 and pandemic influenza A(H1N1) 2009 vaccines in preventing influenza in the United Kingdom. Epidemiol Infect 2013;141(3):620-30
  • Sundaram ME, Meece JK, Sifakis F, et al. Medically attended respiratory syncytial virus infections in adults aged >/= 50 years: clinical characteristics and outcomes. Clin Infect Dis 2014;58:342-9
  • Suzuki T, Ono Y, Maeda H, et al. Effectiveness of trivalent influenza vaccine among children in two consecutive seasons in a community in Japan. Tohoku J Exp Med 2014;232:97-104
  • Schisterman EF, Cole SR, Platt RW. Overadjustment bias and unnecessary adjustment in epidemiologic studies. Epidemiology 2009;20:488-95
  • VanderWeele TJ. On the relative nature of overadjustment and unnecessary adjustment. Epidemiology 2009;20:496-9
  • Weinberg GA, Erdman DD, Edwards KM, et al. Superiority of reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction to conventional viral culture in the diagnosis of acute respiratory tract infections in children. J Infect Dis 2004;189:706-10
  • WHO Collaborating Centre for influenza at CDC Atlanta. CDC protocol of real-time RT-PCR for influenza A(H1N1). WHO, Geneva, Switzerland; 2009. Available from: www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/swineflu/realtimeptpcr/en/
  • Heinze G, Schemper M. A solution to the problem of separation in logistic regression. Stat Med 2002;21:2409-19
  • Sullivan SG, Kelly H. Late season interim estimates of influenza vaccine effectiveness reliably predict end of season estimates in Victoria, Australia, 2007-2012. Euro Surveill 2013;18: pii=20605
  • I-MOVE in Europe. Protocols/ Reviews 2014. Available from: https://sites.google.com/site/epiflu/docu [Last accessed 28 July 2014]
  • Jacoby P, Kelly H. Is it necessary to adjust for calendar time in a test negative design?: responding to: Jackson ML, Nelson JC. The test negative design for estimating influenza vaccine effectiveness. Vaccine 2013;31(April (17)):2165-8. Vaccine 2014;32:2942
  • Greenland S. Invited commentary: variable selection versus shrinkage in the control of multiple confounders. Am J Epidemiol 2008;167:523-9. discussion 30-1
  • Cole SR, Chu H, Greenland S. Maximum likelihood, profile likelihood, and penalized likelihood: a primer. Am J Epidemiol 2014;179:252-60
  • Paneth N, Susser E, Susser M. Origins and early development of the case-control study: part 2, The case-control study from Lane-Claypon to 1950. Sozial- und Praventivmedizin 2002;47:359-65
  • Miettinen O. Estimability and estimation in case-referent studies. Am J Epidemiol 1976;103:226-35
  • Knol MJ, Vandenbroucke JP, Scott P, Egger M. What do case-control studies estimate? Survey of methods and assumptions in published case-control research. Am J Epidemiol 2008;168:1073-81
  • Rodrigues L, Kirkwood BR. Case-control designs in the study of common diseases: updates on the demise of the rare disease assumption and the choice of sampling scheme for controls. Int J Epidemiol 1990;19:205-13
  • Andrews N, Waight PA, Borrow R, et al. Using the indirect cohort design to estimate the effectiveness of the seven valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in England and Wales. PLoS One 2011;6:e28435
  • Broome CV, Facklam RR, Fraser DW. Pneumococcal disease after pneumococcal vaccination: an alternative method to estimate the efficacy of pneumococcal vaccine. N Engl J Med 1980;303:549-52
  • Glymour M, Greenland S. Causal diagrams. In: Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL, editors. Modern epidemiology. 3rd edition. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; Philadelphia, PA, USA: 2008. p. 183-209
  • I-MOVE. Conferences and workshops 2014. Available from: https://sites.google.com/site/epiflu/conferences [Last accessed 28 July 2014]
  • WHO. International meeting on influenza vaccine effectiveness; WHO, Geneva, Switzerland; 2012. Available from: www.who.int/immunization/research/meetings_workshops/influenza_vaccine_effectiveness_dec12/en/ [Last accessed 28 July 2014]
  • Jackson LA. Using surveillance to evaluate influenza vaccine effectiveness. J Infect Dis 2009;199:155-8
  • Irving SA, Donahue JG, Shay DK, et al. Evaluation of self-reported and registry-based influenza vaccination status in a Wisconsin cohort. Vaccine 2009;27:6546-9
  • Mangtani P, Shah A, Roberts JA. Validation of influenza and pneumococcal vaccine status in adults based on self-report. Epidemiol Infect 2007;135:139-43
  • Mac Donald R, Baken L, Nelson A, Nichol KL. Validation of self-report of influenza and pneumococcal vaccination status in elderly outpatients. Am J Prev Med 1999;16:173-7
  • Greenland S. Basic methods for sensitivity analysis of biases. Int J Epidemiol 1996;25:1107-16
  • Copeland KT, Checkoway H, McMichael AJ, Holbrook RH. Bias due to misclassification in the estimation of relative risk. Am J Epidemiol 1977;105:488-95
  • Osterholm MT, Kelley NS, Sommer A, Belongia EA. Efficacy and effectiveness of influenza vaccines: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2012;12:36-44
  • Druce JD, Tran T, Kelly H, et al. Laboratory diagnosis and surveillance of human respiratory viruses by PCR in Victoria, Australia, 2002-2003. J Med Virol 2005;75:122-9
  • Ratcliff RM, Chang G, Kok T, Sloots TP. Molecular diagnosis of medical viruses. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2007;9:87-102

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.