Role of infection and antimicrobial therapy in acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

References

• Mannino DM. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: definition and epidemiology. Respir. Care 48, 1185–1191 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Soriano JB, Davis KJ, Coleman B, Visick G, Mannino D, Pride NB. The proportional Venn diagram of obstructive lung disease: two approximations from the United States and the United Kingdom. Chest 124, 474–481 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sethi S. Infectious exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: diagnosis and management. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 43(Suppl. A), 97–105 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzales R, Malone DC, Maselli JH, Sande MA. Excessive antibiotic use for acute respiratory infections in the United States. Clin. Infect. Dis. 33, 757–762 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niederman MS, McCombs JS, Unger AN, Kumar A, Popovian R. Treatment cost of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Clin. Ther. 21, 576–591 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pauwels R, Calverley P, Buist AS et al. COPD exacerbations: the importance of a standard definition. Respir. Med. 98, 99–107 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodrigues-Roisin R. Toward a consensus definition for COPD exacerbations. Chest 117, 398S–401S (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schmier JK, Halpern MT, Higashi MK, Bakst A. The quality of life impact of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis (AECB): a literature review. Qual. Life Res. 14, 329–347 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doll H, Miravitlles M. Health-related QOL in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A review of the literature. Pharmacoeconomics 23, 345–363 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer S, Jones PW, for the GLOBE Study Group. Time course of recovery of health status following an infective exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Thorax 58, 589–593 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miravitlles M, Ferrer M, Pont A et al., for the IMPAC Study Group. Effect of exacerbations on quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary diseasee: a 2 year follow-up study. Thorax 59, 387–395 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seemungal TAR, Donaldson GC, Bhowmik A, Jeffries DJ, Wedzicha JA. Time course and recovery of exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 161, 1608–1613 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker CM, Voduc N, Aaron SD, Webb KA, O’Donnell DE. Physiological changes during symptom recovery from moderate exacerbations of COPD. Eur. Respir. J. 26, 420–428 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanner RE, Anthonisen NR, Connett JE. Lower respiratory illnesses promote FEV1 decline in current smokers but not ex-smokers with mild chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 164, 358–364 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donaldson GC, Seemungal TA, Bhowmik A, Wedzicha JA. Relationship between exacerbation frequency and lung function decline in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 57, 847–852 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Needham M, Stockley RA. Exacerbations in alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. Eur. Respir. J. 25, 992–1000 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halpern MT, Stanford RH, Borker R. The burden of COPD in the USA: results from the Confronting COPD survey. Respir. Med. 97(Suppl. C), S81–S89 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miravitlles M, Murio C, Guerrero T. Factors associated with relapse after ambulatory treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. DAFNE Study Group. Eur. Respir. J. 17, 928–933 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miravitlles M, Murio C, Guerrero T, Gisbert R, on behalf of the DAFNE Study Group. Costs of chronic bronchitis and COPD. A 1-year follow-up study. Chest 123, 784–791 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro SD. COPD unwound. N. Engl. J. Med. 352, 2016–2019 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Traves SL, Donnelly LE. Chemokines and their receptors as targets for the treatment of COPD. Curr. Respir. Med. Rev. 1, 15–32 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Hogg JC, Chu F, Utokaparch S et al. The nature of small-airway obstruction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 350, 2645–2653 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ito K, Ito M, Elliott WM et al. Decreased histone deacetylase activity in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 352, 1967–1976 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wedzicha JA. Exacerbations. Etiology and pathophysiologic mechanisms. Chest 121, 136S–141S (2002).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pietila MP, Thomas CF. Inflammation and infection in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Semin. Respir. Infect. 18, 9–16 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sethi S, Wrona C, Grant BJB, Murphy TF. Strain-specific immune response to Haemophilus influenzae in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 169, 448053 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Sethi S, Muscarella K, Evans N, Klingman KL, Grant BJ, Murphy TF. Airway inflammation and etiology of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Chest 118, 1557–1565 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gompertz S, O’Brien C, Bayley DL, Hill SL, Stockley RA. Changes in bronchial inflammation during acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Eur. Respir. J. 17, 1112–1119 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White AJ, Gompertz S, Bayley DL et al. Resolution of bronchial inflammation is related to bacterial eradication following treatment of exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Thorax 58, 680–685 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill AT, Bayley D, Stockley RA. The interrelationship of sputum inflammatory markers in patients with chronic bronchitis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 160, 893–898 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aaron SD, Angel JB, Lunau M et al. Granulocyte inflammatory markers and airway infection during acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 163, 349–355 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsoumakidou M, Tzanakis N, Chrysofakis G, Siafakas NM. Nitrosative stress, heme oxygenase-1 expression and airway inflammation during severe exacerbations of COPD. Chest 127, 1911–1918 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White AJ, Gompertz S, Stockley RA. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 6: the etiology of exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 58, 73–80 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roland M, Bhowmik A, Sapsford RJ et al. Sputum and plasma endothelin-1 levels in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 56, 30–35 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fujimoto K, Yasuo M, Urushibata K, Hanaoka M, Koizumi T, Kubo K. Airway inflammation during stable and acutely exacerbated chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur. Respir. J. 25, 640–646 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu J, Qiu YS, Majumdar S et al. Exacerbations of bronchitis: bronchial eosinophilia and gene expression for interleukin-4, interleukin-5, and eosinophil chemoattractants. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 164, 109–116 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qiu Y, Zhu J, Bandi V et al. Biopsy neutrophilia, neutrophil chemokine and receptor gene expression in severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 168, 968–975 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drost EM, Skwarski KM, Sauleda J et al. Oxidative stress and airway inflammation in severe exacerbations of COPD. Thorax 60, 293–300 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agusti AG. COPD, a multicomponent disease: implications for management. Respir. Med. 99, 670–682 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dev D, Wallace E, Sankaran R et al. Value of C-reactive protein measurements in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Respir. Med. 92, 664–667 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wedzicha JA. The heterogeneity of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 5, 631–632 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Hurst JR, Perera WR, Wilkinson TMA, Donaldson GC, Wedzicha JA. Systemic, upper and lower airway inflammation at exacerbation of COPD. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 173(1), 71–78 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Devalia JL, Rusznak C, Davies RJ. Air pollution in the 1990s – cause of increased respiratory disease? Respir. Med. 88, 241–244 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ohtoshi T, Takizawa H, Okazaki H et al. Diesel exhaust particles stimulate human airway epithelial cells to produce cytokines relevant to airway inflammation in vitro. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 101, 778–785 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rudell B, Blomberg A, Helleday R et al. Bronchoalveolar inflammation after exposure to diesel exhaust: comparison between unfiltered and particle trap filtered exhaust. Occup. Environ. Med. 56, 527–534 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sunyer J, Saez M, Murillo C, Castellsague J, Martinez F, Anto JM. Air pollution and emergency room admissions for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a 5-year study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 137, 701–705 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia-Aymerich J, Tobias A, Anto JM, Sunyer J. Air pollution and mortality in a cohort of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a time series analysis. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 54, 73–74 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sunyer J, Schwartz J, Tobias A, Macfarlane D, Garcia J, Anto JM. Patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are at increased risk of death associated with urban particle air pollution: a case-crossover analysis. Am. J. Epidemiol. 151, 50–56 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston SL. Overview of virus-induced airway disease. Proc. Am. Thorac. Soc. 2, 150–156 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilkinson TMA, Donaldson GC, Hurst JR, Seemungal TA, Wedzicha JA. Early therapy improves outcomes of exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 169, 1298–1303 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston SL, Papi A, Bates PJ, Mastronarde JG, Monick MM, Hunnighake GW. Low grade rhinovirus infection induces a prolonged release of IL-8 in pulmonary epithelium. J. Immunol. 160, 6172–6181 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biagioli MC, Kaul P, Singh I, Turner RB. The role of oxidative stress in rhinovirus induced elaboration of IL-8 by respiratory epithelial cells. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 26, 454–462 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griego SD, Weston CB, Adams JL, Tal-Singer R, Dillon SB. Role of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in rhinovirus-induced cytokine production by bronchial epithelial cells. J. Immunol. 165, 5211–5220 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donninger H, Glashoff R, Haitchi HM et al. Rhinovirus induction of the CXC chemokine epithelial-neutrophil activating peptide-78 in bronchial epithelium. J. Infect. Dis. 187, 1809–1817 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu J, Tang W, Gwaltney JM Jr, Wu Y, Elias JA. Rhinovirus stimulation of interleukin-8 in vivo and in vitro: role of NF-kB. Am. J. Physiol. 273, L814–L824 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Papi A, Johnston SL. Respiratory epithelial cell expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 and its upregulation by rhinovirus infection via NF-kappaB and GATA transcription factors. J. Biol. Chem. 274, 30041–30051 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papi A, Johnston SL. Rhinovirus infection induces expression of its own receptor intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) via increased NF-kappaB-mediated transcription. J. Biol. Chem. 274, 9707–9720 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mastronarde JG, He B, Monick MM, Mukaida N, Matsushima K, Hunnighake GW. Induction of interleukin (IL)-8 gene expression by respiratory syncitial virus involves activation of nuclear factor (NF)-kB and NF-IL-6. J. Infect. Dis. 174, 262–267 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mastronarde JG, Monick MM, Mukaida N, Matsushima K, Hunnighake GW. Activator protein-1 is the preferred transcription factor for co-operative interaction with nuclear factor-kappaB in respiratory syncytial virus-induced interleukin-8 gene expression in airway epithelium. J. Infect. Dis. 177, 1275–1281 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ludwig S, Ehrhardt C, Neumeier ER, Kracht M, Rapp UR, Pleschka S. Influenza virus-induced AP-1-dependent gene expression requires activation of the JNK signaling pathway. J. Biol. Chem. 276, 10990–10998 (2001).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papadopoulos NG, Papi A, Meyer J et al. Rhinovirus infection upregulates eotaxin and eotaxin-2 expression in bronchial epithelial cells. Clin. Exp. Allergy 31, 1060–1066 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noah TL, Wortman IA, Becker S. The effect of fluticasone propionate on respiratory syncytial virus-induced chemokines release by a human bronchial epithelial cell line. Immunopharmacology 39, 193–199 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gern JE, Galagan DM, Jarjour NN, Dick EC, Busse W. Detection of rhinovirus RNA in lower airway cells during experimentally induced infection. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 155, 1159–1161 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papadopoulos NG, Bates PJ, Bardin PG et al. Rhinoviruses infect the lower airways. J. Infect. Dis. 181, 1875–1884 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grunberg K, Smits HH, Timmers MC et al. Experimental rhinovirus 16 infection: effects on cell differentials and soluble markers in sputum of asthmatic subjects. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 156, 609–616 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fleming HE, Little FF, Schnurr D et al. Rhinovirus-16 colds in healthy and asthmatic subjects. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 160, 100–108 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seemungal T, Harper-Owen R, Bhowmic A et al. Respiratory viruses, symptoms, and inflammatory markers in acute exacerbations and stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 164, 1618–1623 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenberg SB. Viral respiratory infections in elderly patients and patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Med. 112(6A), 28S–32S (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wedzicha JA. Role of viruses in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc. Am. Thorac. Soc. 1, 115–120 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stott EJ, Grist NR, Eadie MB. Rhinovirus infections in chronic bronchitis: isolation of eight possible new rhinovirus serotypes. J. Med. Microbiol. 1, 109–117 (1968).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gump DW, Phillips CA, Forsyth BR. Role of infections in chronic bronchitis. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 113, 465–473 (1976).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhode G, Wiethege A, Borg I et al. Respiratory viruses in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease requiring hospitalisation: a case-control study. Thorax 58, 37–42 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tan WC, Xiang X, Qiu D et al. Epidemiology of respiratory viruses in patients hospitalized with near-fatal asthma, acute exacerbations of asthma, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Med. 115, 272–277 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pletz MW, Ioanas M, de Roux A, Burkhardt O, Lode H. Reduced spontaneous apoptosis in peripheral blood neutrophils during exacerbation of COPD. Eur. Respir. J. 23, 532–537 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beaty CD, Grayston JT, Wang SP, Kuo CC, Reto CS, Martin TR. Chlamydia pneumoniae, strain Twar, infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 144, 1408–1410 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blasi F, Legnani D, Lombardo VM et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in acute exacerbations of COPD. Eur. Respir. J. 6, 19–22 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogulkoc N, Karakurt S, Isalska B et al. Acute purulent exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and Chlamydia pneumoniae infection. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 160, 349–353 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karnak D, Beng-sun S, Beder S, Kayacan O. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Respir. Med. 95, 811–816 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu L, Skinner SJ, Lambie N, Vuletic JC, Blasi F, Black PN. Immunohistochemical staining for Chlamydia pneumoniae is increased in lung tissue from subjects with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162, 1148–1151 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seemungal TA, Wedzicha JA, MacCallum PK, Johnston SL, Lambert PA. Chlamydia pneumoniae and COPD exacerbation. Thorax 57, 1087–1088 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith CB, Golden CA, Kanner RE, Renzetti AD Jr. Association of viral and Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections with acute respiratory illness in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 121, 225–232 (1980).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieberman D, Ben-Yaakov M, Lazarovich Z, Ohana B, Boldur I. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: analysis of 250 hospitalizations. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 20, 698–704 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirschmann JV. Do bacteria cause exacerbations of COPD? Chest 118, 193–203 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy TF, Sethi S, Niederman MS. The role of bacteria in exacerbations of COPD. A constructive view. Chest 118, 204–209 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sethi S, Murphy TF. Bacterial infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in 2000: a state-of-the-art review. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14, 336–363 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miravitlles M, Espinosa C, Fernandez-Laso E, Martos JA, Maldonado JA, Gallego M, Study Group of Bacterial Infection in COPD. Relationship between bacterial flora in sputum and functional impairment in patients with acute exacerbations of COPD. Chest 116, 40–46 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eller J, Ede A, Schaberg T, Niederman M, Mauch H, Lode H. Infective exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Relation between bacteriologic etiology and lung function. Chest 113, 1542–1548 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monso E, Garcia-Aymerich J, Soler N et al., EFRAM Investigators. Bacterial infection in exacerbated COPD with changes in sputum characteristics. Epidemiol. Infect. 131, 799–804 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McHardy VU, Inglis JM, Calder MA et al. A study of infecive and other factors in exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Br. J. Dis. Chest 74, 228–238 (1980).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Murphy TF, Brauer AL, Schiffmacher AT, Sethi S. Persistent colonization by Haemophilus influenzae in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 170, 266–272 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel IS, Seemungal TAR, Wilks M, Lloyd-Owen SJ, Donaldson GC, Wedzicha JA. Relationship between bacterial colonisation and the frequency, character, and severity of COPD exacerbations. Thorax 57, 759–764 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkinson TM, Patel IS, Wilks M, Donaldson GC, Wedzicha JA. Airway bacterial load and FEV1 decline in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 167, 1090–1095 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monso E, Ruiz J, Rosell A et al. Bacterial infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a study of stable and exacerbated out-patients using the protected specimen brush. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 152, 1316–1320 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fagon JY, Chastre J, Trouillet JL et al. Characterization of distal bronchial microflora during acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Use of the protected specimen brush technique in 54 mechanically ventilated patients. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 142, 1004–1008 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soler N, Torres A, Ewig S et al. Bronchial microbial patterns in severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) requiring mechanical ventilation. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157, 1498–1505 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pela R, Marchesani F, Agostinelli C et al. Airways microbial flora in COPD patients in stable clinical conditions and during exacerbations: a bronchoscopic investigation. Monaldi Arch. Chest Dis. 53, 262–267 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bandi V, Apicella MA, Mason E et al. Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae in the lower respiratory tract of patients with chronic bronchitis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 164, 2114–2119 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosell A, Monso E, Soler N et al. Microbiologic determinants of exacerbation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Arch. Intern. Med. 165, 891–897 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sethi S, Evans N, Grant BJB, Murphy TF. New strains of bacteria and exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 347, 465–471 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chin CL, Manzel LJ, Lehman EE et al. Haemophilus influenzae from COPD patients with exacerbation induce more inflammation than colonizers. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 172, 85–91 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy TF, Brauer AL, Grant BJB, Sethi S. Moraxella catarrhalis in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: burden of disease and immune reponse. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 172(2), 195–199 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Musher DM, Kubitschek KR, Crennan J et al. Pneumonia and acute febrile tracheobronchitis due to Haemophilus influenzae. Ann. Intern. Med. 99, 444–450 (1983).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yi K, Sethi S, Murphy TF. Human immune response to non-typable Haemophilus influenzae in chronic bronchitis. J. Infect. Dis. 176, 1247–1252 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bakri F, Brauer AL, Sethi S, Murphy TF. Systemic and mucosal antibody response to Moraxella catarrhalis after exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J. Infect. Dis. 185, 632–640 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandi V, Jakubowycz M, Kinyon C et al. Infectious exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease associated with respiratory viruses and non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 10, 69–75 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Abe Y, Murphy TF, Sethi S et al. Lymphocyte proliferative response to P6 of Haemophilus influenzae is associated with relative protection from exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 165, 967–971 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King PT, Hutchinson PE, Johnson PD, Holmes PW, Freezer NJ, Holdsworth ST. Adaptive immunity to nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 167, 587–592 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bach PB, Brown C, Gelfand SE, McCroy DC. Management of acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a summary and appraisal of published evidence. Ann. Intern. Med. 134, 600–620 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snow V, Lascher S, Mottur-Pilson C. Evidence base for management of acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann. Intern. Med. 134, 595–599 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saint S, Flaherty KR, Abrahamse P, Martinez FJ, Fendrick AM. Acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: disease-specific issues that influence the cost–effectiveness of antimicrobial therapy. Clin. Ther. 23, 499–512 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCrory DC, Brown C, Gelfand SE, Bach PB. Management of acute exacerbations of COPD: a summary and appraisal of published evidence. Chest 119, 1190–209 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sachs AP, Koeter GH, Groenier KH, van der Waaij D, Schiphuis J, Meyboom-de Jong B. Changes in symptoms, peak expiratory flow, and sputum flora during treatment with antibiotics of exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 50, 758–763 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allegra L, Blasi F, de Bernardi B, Cosentini R, Tarsia P. Antibiotic treatment and baseline severity or disease in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: a re-evaluation of previously published data of a placebo-controlled randomized study. Pulm. Pharmacol. Ther. 14, 149–155 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nouira S, Marghli S, Belghith M, Besbes L, Elatrous S, Abroug F. Once daily oral ofloxacin in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbation requiring mechanical ventilation: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 358, 2020–2025 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saint S, Bent S, Vittinghoff E, Grady D. Antibiotics in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations. A meta-analysis. JAMA273,957–960 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anthonisen N, Manfreda J, Warren C, Hersfield E, Harding G, Nelson N. Antibiotic therapy in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann. Intern. Med. 106, 196–204 (1987).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berry DG, Fry J, Hindley CP et al. Exacerbations of chronic bronchitis treatment with oxytetracycline. Lancet 1, 137–139 (1960).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aldons PM. A comparison of clarithromycin with ampicillin in the treatment of out-patients with acute bacterial exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 27(Suppl. A), 101–108 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Allegra L, Konietzko N, Leophonte P et al. Comparative safety and efficacy of sparfloxacin in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a double-blind, randomised, parallel, multicentre study. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 37(Suppl. A), 93–104 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amsden GW, Baird IM, Simon S, Treadway G. Efficacy and safety of azithromycin vs. levofloxacin in the out-patient treatment of acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Chest 123, 772–777 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anzueto A, Niederman MS, Tillotson GS, Bronchitis Study Group. Etiology, susceptibility, and treatment of acute bacterial exacerbations of complicated chronic bronchitis in the primary care setting: ciprofloxacin 750 mg b.i.d. versus clarithromycin 500 mg bid. Clin. Ther. 20, 835–850 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Anzueto A, Fisher CL Jr, Busman T, Olson CA. Comparison of the efficacy of extended-release clarithromycin tablets and amoxicillin/clavulanate tablets in the treatment of acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Clin. Ther. 23, 72–86 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anzueto A, Niederman MS, Haverstock DC, Tillotson GS. Efficacy of ciprofloxacin and clarithromycin in acute bacterial exacerbations of complicated chronic bronchitis: interim analysis. Bronchitis Study Group. Clin. Ther. 19, 989–1001 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aubier M, Aldons PM, Leak A et al. Telithromycin is as effective as amoxicillin/clavulanate in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Respir. Med. 96, 862–871 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aubier MA. Comparison of ceftibuten versus amoxicillin/clavulanate in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Chemotherapy 43, 297–302 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bachand RT Jr. Comparative study of clarithromycin and ampicillin in the treatment of patients with acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 27(Suppl. A), 91–100 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boye NP, Gaustad P. Double-blind comparative study of ofloxacin (Hoe 280) and trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole in the treatment of patients with acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis and chronic obstructive lung disease. Infection 19(Suppl. 7), S388–S390 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cazzola M, Vinciguerra A, DiPerna F et al. Comparative study of dirithromycin and azithromycin in the treatment of acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J. Chemother. 11, 119–125 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chodosh S, Schreurs A, Siami G et al., Bronchitis Study Group. Efficacy of oral ciprofloxacin vs. clarithromycin for treatment of acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 27, 730–738 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chodosh S, McCarty J, Farkas S et al. Randomized, double-blind study of ciprofloxacin and cefuroxime axetil for treatment of acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. The Bronchitis Study Group. Clin. Infect. Dis. 27, 722–729 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chodosh S, Lakshminarayan S, Swarz H, Breisch S. Efficacy and safety of a 10-day course of 400 or 600 milligrams of grepafloxacin once daily for treatment of acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: comparison with a 10-day course of 500 milligrams of ciprofloxacin twice daily. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 42, 114–120 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chodosh S. Efficacy of fleroxacin versus amoxicillin in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Am. J. Med. 94, 131S–135S (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chodosh S, DeAbate CA, Haverstock D, Aneiro L, Church D. Short-course moxifloxacin therapy for treatment of acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. The Bronchitis Study Group. Respir. Med. 94, 18–27 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeAbate CA, Bettis R, Munk ZM et al. Effectiveness of short-course therapy (5 days) with grepafloxacin in the treatment of acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Clin. Ther. 21, 172–188 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeAbate CA, Dan H, Bensch G et al. Sparfloxacin vs. ofloxacin in the treatement of acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: a multicenter, double-blind, randomized, comparative study. Chest 114, 120–130 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• DeAbate CA, Mathew CP, Warner JH, Heyd A, Church D. The safety and efficacy of short course (5-day) moxifloxacin vs. azithromycin in the treatment of patients with acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Respir. Med. 94, 1029–1037 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fogarty CM, Bettis RB, Griffin TJ, Keyserling CH, Nemeth MA, Tack KJ. Comparison of a 5 day regimen of cefdinir with a 10 day regimen of cefprozil for treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 45, 851–858 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaillat J. A multicentre study comparing the safety and efficacy of dirithromycin with erythromycin in the treatment of bronchitis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 31(Suppl. C), 139–151 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Georgopoulos A, Borek M, Ridl W. Randomized, double-blind, double-dummy study comparing the efficacy and safety of amoxycillin 1 g bd with amoxycillin 500 mg tds in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 47, 67–76 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gotfried MH, Ellison WT. Safety and efficacy of lomefloxacin versus cefaclor in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Am. J. Med. 92, 108S–113S (1992).
   Google Scholar
• Grassi C, Albera C, Pozzi E. Lomefloxacin versus amoxicillin in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: an Italian multicenter study. Am. J. Med. 92, 103S–107S (1992).
   Google Scholar
• Grassi C, Salvatori E, Rosignoli MT, Dionisio P. Randomized, double-blind study of prulifloxacin versus ciprofloxacin in patients with acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Respiration 69, 217–222 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guest N, Langan CE. Comparison of the efficacy and safety of a short course of ceftibuten with that of amoxycillin/clavulanate in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 10, 49–54 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klietmann W, Cesana M, Rondel RK, Focht J. Double-blind, comparative study of rufloxacin once daily versus amoxicillin three times a day in treatment of out-patients with exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 37, 2298–2306 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Langan C, Clecner B, Cazzola CM, Brambilla C, Holmes CY, Staley H. Short-course cefuroxime axetil therapy in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 52, 289–297 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langan CE, Cranfield R, Breisch S, Pettit R. Randomized, double-blind study of grepafloxacin versus amoxycillin in patients with acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 40, 63–72 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Langan CE, Zuck P, Vogel F et al. Randomized, double-blind study of short-course (5 day) grepafloxacin versus 10 day clarithromycin in patients with acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 44, 515–523 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leophonte P, Baldwin RJ, Pluck N. Trovafloxacin versus amoxicillin/clavulanic acid in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive bronchitis. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 17, 434–440 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masterson RG, Burley CJ, The Study Group. Randomized, double-blind study comparing 5- and 7-day regimens of oral levofloxacin in patients with acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 18, 503–512 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McCarty JM, Pierce PF. Five days of cefprozil versus 10 days of clarithromycin in the treatment of an acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 87, 327–334 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Doherty B, Daniel R. Treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: comparison of trovafloxacin and amoxicillin in a multicentre, double-blind, double-dummy study. Trovafloxacin Bronchitis Study Group. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 17, 441–446 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perez-Gonzalvo ME, Mosquera-Pestana JA, Ramos D et al. Ofloxacin versus trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole in the treatment of patients with acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Study of ofloxacin in Lower Respiratory Tract Infections Research Group. Clin. Ther. 18, 440–447 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Periti P, Novelli A, Schildwachter G, Schmidt-Gayk H, Ryo Y, Zuck P. Efficacy and tolerance of cefpodoxime proxetil compared with co-amoxiclav in the treatment of exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 26(Suppl. E), 63–69 (1990).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Phillips H, Van Hook CJ, Butler T, Todd WM. A comparison of cefpodoxime proxetil and cefaclor in the treatment of acute exacerbation of COPD in adults. Chest 104, 1387–1392 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rademaker CM, Sips AP, Beumer HM et al. A double-blind comparison of low-dose ofloxacin and amoxycillin/clavulanic acid in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 26(Suppl. D), 75–81 (1990).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Read RC, Kuss A, Berrisoul F, Kearsley N, Torres A, Kubin R. The efficacy and safety of a new ciprofloxacin suspension compared with co-amoxiclav tablets in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Respir. Med. 93, 252–261 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah PM, Maesen FPV, Domann A, Vetter N, Fiss E, Wesch R. Levofloxacin versus cefuroxime axetil in the treatment of acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis: results of a randomized, double-blind study. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 43, 529–539 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sides GD. Clinical efficacy of dirithromycin in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 31(Suppl. C), 131–138 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Soler M, Lode H, Baldwin R et al. Randomised double-blind comparison of oral gatifloxacin and co-amoxiclav for acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 22, 144–150 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wasilewski MM, Johns D, Sides GD. Five-day dirithromycin therapy is as effective as seven-day erythromycin therapy for acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 43, 541–548 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilson R, Schentag JJ, Ball P, Mandell L. A comparison of gemifloxacin and clarithromycin in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis and long-term clinical outcomes. Clin. Ther. 24, 639–652 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson R, Kubin R, Ballin I et al. Five day moxifloxacin therapy compared with 7 day clarithromycin therapy for the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 44, 501–513 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson R, Allegra L, Huchon G, Izquierdo JL, Jones P, Shaberg T, Sagnier PP, MOSAIC Study Group. Short-term and long-term outcomes of moxifloxacin compared to standard antibiotic treatment in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Chest 125, 953–964 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeckel ML, Jacobson KD, Guerra FJ, Therasse DG, Farlow D. Loracarbef (LY-163892) versus amoxicillin/clavulanate in the treatment of acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Clin. Ther. 14, 214–229 (1992).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ziering W, McElvanie P. Randomized comparison of once-daily ceftibuten and twice-daily clarithromycin in the treatment of acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Infection 26, 72–75 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Zervos MJ, Heyder AM, Leroy B. Oral telithromycin 800 mg once daily for 5 days versus cefuroxime axetil 500 mg twice daily for 10 days in adults with acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J. Int. Med. Res. 31, 157–169 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sethi S, Breton J, Wynne B. Efficacy and safety of pharmacokinetically enhanced amoxicillin–clavulanate at 2,000/125 milligrams twice daily for 5 days versus amoxicillin–clavulanate at 875/125 milligrams twice daily for 7 days in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49, 153–160 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zervos M, Breen J, Jorgensen DM, Goodrich JM. Novel, single-dose microsphere formulation of azithromycin versus levofloxacin for the treatment of acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Infect. Dis. Clin. Pract. 13, 115–121 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Miravitlles M, Torres A. No more equivalence trials for antibiotics in exacerbations of COPD, please. Chest 125, 811–813 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Miravitlles M, Llor C, Naberan K, Cots JM, Molina J. Effect of various antimicrobial regimens on the clinical course of exacerbations of chronic bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in primary care. Clin. Drug Invest. 24, 63–72 (2004).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez FJ, Grossman RF, Zadeikis N et al. Patient stratification in the management of acute bacterial exacerbation of chronic bronchitis: the role of levofloxacin 750 mg. Eur. Respir. J. 25(6), 1001–1010 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anzueto A, Rizzo JA, Grossman RF. The infection-free interval: its use in evaluating antimicrobial treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 28, 1344–1345 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chodosh S. Clinical significance of the infection-free interval in the management of acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Chest 127, 2231–2236 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miravitlles M. Exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: when are bacteria important? Eur. Respir. J. 20(Suppl. 36), 9S–19S (2002).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez FJ. Acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis: treatment challenges and the disease-free interval. Infect. Med. 22, 217–223 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Lode H, Eller J, Linnhoff A, Ioanas M, and the Evaluation of Therapy-Free Interval in COPD Patients Study Group. Levofloxacin versus clarithromycin in COPD exacerbation: focus on exacerbation-free interval. Eur. Respir. J. 24, 947–953 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Soler N, Agusti C, Angrill J, Puig de la Bellacasa J, Miravitlles M, Torres A. Microbiologic validation of anthonisen criteria in COPD exacerbations: a bronchoscopic study in hospitalized patients. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 169, A207 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Stockley RA, O’Brien C, Pye A, Hill SL. Relationship of sputum color to nature and out-patient management of acute exacerbations of COPD. Chest 117, 1638–1645 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allegra L, Blasi F, Diano PL et al. Sputum color as a marker of acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Respir. Med. 99, 742–747 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blasi F, Tarsia P, Aliberti S. Strategic targets of essential host–pathogen interactions. Respiration 72, 9–25 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Christ-Crain M, Jaccard-Stolz D, Bingisser R et al. Effect of procalcitonin-guided treatment on antibiotic use and outcome in lower respiratory tract infections: cluster-randomised, single-blinded intervention trial. Lancet 363, 600–607 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reichenberger JM, Habicht JM, Gratwohl A, Tamm M. Diagnosis and treatment of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in neutropenic patients. Eur. Respir. J. 19, 743–755 (2001).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez FJ. Acute bronchitis: state of the art diagnosis and therapy. Compr. Ther.30,55–69 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Balter MS, La Forge J, Low DE, Mandell L, Grossman RF. Canadian guidelines for the management of acute exacerbations of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Can. Respir. J. 10(Suppl. B), 3B–32B (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ball P. Epidemiology and treatment of chronic bronchitis and its exacerbations. Chest 43S–52S (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Martinez FJ. The impact of antimicrobial resistance: patterns for common respiratory pathogens. Consultant S1–S6 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Perez-Trallero E, Marimon JM, Gonzales A, Ercibengoa M, Larruskain J. In vivo development of high-level fluroquinolone resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clin. Infect. Dis. 41, 560–564 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho PL, Tse WS, Tsang KWT et al. Risk factors for acquisition of levofloxacin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: a case-control study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32, 701–707 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss K, Restieri C, Gauthier R et al. A nosocomial outbreak of fluoroquinolone-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Clin. Infect. Dis. 33, 517–522 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang D, Coscoy L, Zylberberg M et al. Microarray-based detection and genotyping of viral pathogens. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 99, 15687–15692 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang D, Urisman A, Liu YT et al. Viral discovery and sequence recovery using DNA microarrays. PLoS Biol. 1, E2 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rota PA, Oberste MS, Monroe SS et al. Characterization of a novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Science 300, 1394–1399 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roth SB, Jalava J, Ruuskanen O, Ruohola A, Nikkari S. Use of an oligonucleotide array for laboratory diagnosis of bacteria responsible for acute upper respiratory infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42, 4268–4274 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park H, Jang H, Song E et al. Detection and genotyping of Mycobacterium species from clinical isolates and specimens by oligonucleotide array. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43, 1782–1788 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hjortdahl P, Landaas S, Urdal P, Steinbakk M, Fuglerud P, Nygaard B. C-reactive protein: a new rapid assay for managing infectious disease in primary healthcare. Scand. J. Prim. Health Care 9, 3–10 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Takemura Y, Ebisawa K, Kakoi H et al. Antibiotic selection patterns in acutely febrile new out-patients with or without immediate testing for C reactive protein and leucocyte count. J. Clin. Pathol. 58, 729–733 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van der Meer V, Neven AK, van den Broek PJ, Assendelft WJ. Diagnostic value of C reactive protein in infections of the lower respiratory tract: systematic review. Br. Med. J.331,26 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon L, Gauvin F, Amre DK, Saint-Louis P, Lacroix J. Serum procalcitonin and C-reactive protein levels as markers of bacterial infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 39, 206–217 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maruna P, Nedelnikova K, Gurlich R. Physiology and genetics of procalcitonin. Physiol. Res. 49(Suppl. 1), S57–S61 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Assicot M, Gendrel D, Carsin H, Raymond J, Guilbaud J, Bohuon C. High serum procalcitonin concentrations in patients with sepsis and infection. Lancet 341, 515–518 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gendrel D, Raymond J, Coste J et al. Comparison of procalcitonin with C-reactive protein, interleukin-6 and interferon-alpha for differentiation of bacterial vs. viral infections. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 18, 875–881 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muller B, Becker KL, Schachinger H et al. Calcitonin precursors are reliable markers of sepsis in a medical intensive care unit. Crit. Care Med. 28, 977–983 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delevaux I, Andre M, Colombier M et al. Can procalcitonin measurement help in differentiating between bacterial infection and other kinds of inflammatory processes? Ann. Rheum. Dis. 62, 337–340 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes PJ, Stockley RA. COPD: current therapeutic interventions and future approaches. Eur. Respir. J. 25, 1084–1106 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sin DD, McAlister FA, Man SFP, Anthonisen NR. Contemporary management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Scientific review. JAMA290,2301–2312 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niewoehner DE, Rice K, Cote C et al. Prevention of exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with tiotropium, a once-daily inhaled anticholinergic bronchodilator: a randomized trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 143, 317–326 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr RG, Bourbeau J, Camargo CA, Ram FSF. Inhaled tiotropium for stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Barnes PJ. Theophylline: new perspectives for an old drug. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 167, 813–818 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cosio BG, Tsaprouni L, Ito K, Jazrawi E, Adcock IM, Barnes PJ. Theophylline restores histone deacetylase activity and steroid responses in COPD macrophages. J. Exp. Med.200,689–695 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yasui K, Hu B, Nakazawa T, Agematsu K, Komiyama A. Theophylline accelerates human granulocyte apoptosis not via phosphodiesterase inhibition. J. Clin. Invest. 100, 1677–1684 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yasui K, Agematsu K, Shinozaki K et al. Theophylline induces neutrophil apoptosis through adenosine A2A receptor antagonism. J. Leukoc. Biol. 67, 529–535 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mascali JJ, Cvietusa P, Negri J, Borish L. Anti-inflammatory effects of theophylline: modulation of cytokine production. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 77, 34–38 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipworth BJ. Phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitors for asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Lancet 365, 167–175 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabe KF, Bateman ED, O’Donnell DE, Witte S, Bredenbroker D, Bethke TD. Roflumilastan oral anti-inflammatory treatment for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 366, 563–571 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsai WC, Standiford TJ. Immunomodulatory effects of macrolides in the lung: lessons from in vitro and in vivo models. Curr. Pharm. Des. 10, 2081–2093 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amsden GW. Anti-inflammatory effects of macrolides-an underappreciated benefit in the treatment of community-acquired respiratory tract infections and chronic inflammatory pulmonary conditions? J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 55, 10–21 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez FJ, Simon RH. Clinical implications of macrolide therapy in chronic sinopulmonary diseases. Curr. Pharm. Des. 10, 3095–3110 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamaoki J, Kadota J, Takizawa H. Clinical implications of the immunomodulatory effects of macrolides. Am. J. Med. 117(Suppl. 9A), 5S–11S (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin BK, Henke MO. Immunomodulatory activity and effectiveness of macrolides in chronic airway disease. Chest 125(2 Suppl.), 70S–78S (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parnham MJ, Culic O, Erakovic V et al. Modulation of neutrophil and inflammation markers in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease by short-term azithromycin treatment. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 517, 132–143 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basyigit I, Yildiz F, Ozkara SK, Yildirim E, Boyaci H, Ilgazli A. The effect of clarithromycin on inflammatory markers in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: preliminary data. Ann. Pharmacother. 38, 783–792 (2004).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomez J, Banos V, Simarro E et al. Estudio prospective y comparative (1994–1998) sobre la influencia del tratamiento corto profilactico con azitromicina en pacientes con EPOC evolucionada. Rev. Esp. Quimioter. 13, 379–383 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Suzuki T, Yanai M, Yamaya M et al. Erythromycin and common cold in COPD. Chest 120, 730–733 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alseedi A, Sin DD, McAlister FA. The effects of inhaled corticosteroids in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a systemic review of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Am. J. Med. 113, 59–65 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sin DD, Johnson M, Gan WQ, Man SF. Combination therapy of inhaled corticosteroids and long-acting β2-adrenergics in management of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Curr. Pharm. Des. 10, 3547–3560 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Niewoehner DE, Erbland ML, Deupree RH et al., for the Department of Veterans Affairs Co-operative Study Group. Effect of sytemic glucocorticoids on exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 340, 1941–1947 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtis JL. Cell-mediated adaptive immune defense of the lungs. Proc. Am. Thorac. Soc. 2(5), 412–416 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barnes PJ. New concepts in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann. Rev. Med. 54, 113–129 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro SD, Ingenito EP. The pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Advances in the past 100 years. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 32, 367–372 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saetta M, Di Stefano A, Maestrelli P et al. Activated T-lymphocytes and macrophages in bronchial mucosa of subjects with chronic bronchitis. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 147, 301–306 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Shaughnessy TC, Ansari TW, Barnes NC, Jeffery PK. Inflammation in bronchial biopsies of subjects with chronic bronchitis: inverse relationship of CD8+ T-lymphocytes with FEV1. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 155, 852–857 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caramori G, Romagnoli M, Casolari P et al. Nuclear localisation of p65 in sputum macrophages but not in sputum neutrophils during COPD exacerbations. Thorax 58, 348–351 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Majo J, Ghezzo H, Cosio MG. Lymphocyte population and apoptosis in the lungs of smokers and their relation to emphysema. Eur. Respir. J. 17, 946–953 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saetta M, Mariani M, Panina-Bordignon P et al. Increased expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR3 and its ligand CXCL10 in peripheral airways of smokers with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 165, 1404–1409 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grumelli S, Corry DB, Song LZ et al. An immune basis for lung parenchymal destruction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and emphysema. PLOS Med. 1, 75–83 (2004).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodland DL, Scott I. T-cell memory in the lung airways. Proc. Am. Thorac. Soc. 2, 126–131 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kolls JK, Linden A. Interleukin-17 family members and inflammation. Immunity 21, 467–476 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen Y, Thai P, Zhao YH, Ho YS, DeSouza MM, Wu R. Stimulation of airway mucin gene expression by interleukin (IL)-17 through IL-6 paracrine/autocrine loop. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 17036–17043 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oppmann B, Lesley R, Blom B et al. Novel p19 protein engages IL-12p40 to form a cytokine, IL-23, with biological activities similar as well as distinct from IL-12. Immunity 13, 715–725 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aggarwal S, Ghilardi N, Xie MH, de Sauvage FJ, Gurney AL. Interleukin-23 promotes a distinct CD4 T-cell activation state characterized by the production of interleukin-17. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 1910–1914 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langrish CL, McKenzie BS, Wilson NJ, de Waal Malefyt R, Kastelein RA, Cua DJ. IL-12 and IL-23: master regulators of innate and adaptive immunity. Immunol. Rev. 202, 96–105 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welsh RM, Selin LK, Szomolanyi-Tsuda E. Immunological memory to viral infections. Ann. Rev. Immunol. 22, 711–743 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hohn H, Kortsik C, Tully G et al. Longitudinal analysis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis 19-kDa antigen-specific T-cells in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis: association with disease activity and cross-reactivity to a peptide from HIVenv gp120. Eur. J. Immunol. 33, 1613–1623 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Paine R III, Chavis A, Gaposchkin D et al. A factor secreted by a human pulmonary alveolar epithelial-like cell line blocks T-cell proliferation between G1 and S phase. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 6, 658–666 (1992).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Roth MD, Golub SH. Human pulmonary macrophages utilize prostaglandins and transforming growth factor b1 to suppress lymphocyte activation. J. Leukoc. Biol. 53, 366–371 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seitzman GD, Sonstein J, Kim S, Choy W, Curtis JL. Lung lymphocytes proliferate minimally in the murine pulmonary immune response to intratracheal sheep erythrocytes. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 18, 800–812 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Borron PJ, Crouch EC, Lewis JF, Wright JR, Possmayer F, Fraher LJ. Recombinant rat surfactant-associated protein D inhibits human T-lymphocyte proliferation and IL-2 production. J. Immunol. 161, 4599–4603 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borron P, McCormack FX, Elhalwagi BM et al. Surfactant protein A inhibits T-cell proliferation via its collagen-like tail and a 210-kDa receptor. Am. J. Physiol. 275, L679–L686 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Borron PJ, Mostaghel EA, Doyle C, Walsh ES, McHeyzer-Williams MG, Wright JR. Pulmonary surfactant proteins A and D directly suppress CD3+/CD4+ cell function: evidence for two shared mechanisms. J. Immunol. 169, 5844–5850 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipscomb MF, Lyons CR, Nunez G et al. Human alveolar macrophages: HLA-DR-positive cells that are poor stimulators of a primary mixed leukocyte reaction. J. Immunol. 136, 497–504 (1986).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thepen T, Van Rooijen N, Kraal G. Alveolar macrophage elimination in vivo is associated with an increase in pulmonary immune response in mice. J. Exp. Med.170,499–509 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thepen T, McMenamin C, Girn B, Kraal G, Holt PG. Regulation of IgE production in pre-sensitized animals: in vivo elimination of alveolar macrophages preferentially increases IgE responses to inhaled allergen. Clin. Exp. Allergy 22, 1107–1114 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yarbrough WC Jr, Wilkes DS, Weissler JC. Human alveolar macrophages inhibit receptor-mediated increases in intracellular calcium concentration in lymphocytes. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 5, 411–415 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holt PG, Oliver J, Bilyk N et al. Downregulation of the antigen-presenting cell function(s) of pulmonary dendritic cells in vivo by resident alveolar macrophages. J. Exp. Med.177,397–407 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robbins CS, Dawe DE, Goncharova SI et al. Cigarette smoke decreases pulmonary dendritic cells and impacts antiviral immune responsiveness. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 30, 202–211 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casolaro MA, Bernaudin JF, Saltini C, Ferrans VJ, Crystal RG. Accumulation of Langerhans’ cells on the epithelial surface of the lower respiratory tract in normal subjects in association with cigarette smoking. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 137, 406–411 (1988).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soler P, Moreau A, Basset F, Hance AJ. Cigarette smoking-induced changes in the number and differentiated state of pulmonary dendritic cells/Langerhans cells. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 139, 1112–1117 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osterholzer JJ, Ames T, Polak T et al. CCR2 and CCR6, but not endothelial selectins, mediate the accumulation of immature dendritic cells within the lungs of mice in response to particulate antigen. J. Immunol. 175, 874–883 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamelin ME, Cote S, Laforge J et al. Human metapneumovirus infection in adults with community-acquired pneumonia and exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clin. Infect. Dis. 41, 498–502 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Elmes PC, Fletcher CM, Dutton AA. Prophylactic use of oxytetracycline for exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Br. Med. J.2,1272–1275 (1957).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fear EC, Edwards G. Antibiotic regimes in chronic bronchitis. Br. J. Dis. Chest 56, 153–162 (1962).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Elmes PC, King TK, Langlands JH et al. Value of ampicillin in the hospital treatment of exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Br. Med. J.5467,904–908 (1965).
   Google Scholar
• Petersen ES, Esmann V, Honcke P et al. A controlled study of the effect of treatment on chronic bronchitis: an evaluation using pulmonary function tests. Acta Med. Scand. 182, 293–305 (1967).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pines A, Raafat H, Plucinski K et al. Antibiotic regimens in severe and acute purulent exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Br. Med. J.2,735–738 (1968).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pines A, Raafat H, Greenfiled JS et al. Antibiotic regimens in moderately ill patients with purulent exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Br. J. Dis. Chest 66, 107–115 (1972).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nicotra MB, Rivera M, Awe RJ. Antibiotic therapy of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: a controlled study using tetracycline. Ann. Intern. Med. 97, 18–21 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jorgensen AF, Coolidge J, Pedersen PA, Petersen KP, Waldroff S, Widding E. Amoxicillin in treatment of acute uncomplicated exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: a double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter study in general practice. Scand. J. Prim. Health Care 10, 7–11 (1992).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grossman R, Mukherjee J, Vaughan D et al. A 1-year community-based health economic study of ciprofloxacin vs. usual antibiotic treatment in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. The Canadian Ciprofloxacin Health Economic Study Group. Chest 113, 131–141 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Celli BR, MacNee W, and committee members. ATS/ERS Task Force. Standards for the diagnosis and treatment of patients with COPD: a summary of the ATS/ERS position paper. Eur. Respir. J. 23(6), 932–946 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. National clinical guideline on management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in adults in primary and secondary care. Thorax 59(Suppl. 1), I1–I232 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Woodhead M, Blasi F, Ewig S et al. Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections. Eur. Respir. J.26(6), 1138–1180 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar