244
Views
45
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Trichomoniasis and its treatment

, , &
Pages 125-135 | Published online: 10 Jan 2014

References

  • World Health Organization. An overview of selected curable sexually transmitted diseases. Global Programme on AIDS Report (1995).
  • Lehker MW, Alderete JF. Resolution of six chromosomes of Trichomonas vaginalis and conservation of size and number among isolates. J. Parasitol. 85(5), 976–979 (1999).
  • Arroyo R, Alderete JF. Two Trichomonas vaginalis surface proteinases bind to host epithelial cells and are related to levels of cytoadherence and cytotoxicity. Arch. Med. Res. 26(3), 279–285 (1995).
  • Provenzano D, Alderete JF. Analysis of human immunoglobulin-degrading cysteine proteinases of Trichomonas vaginalis. Infect. Immun. 63(9), 3388–3395 (1995).
  • Alderete JF. Iron modulates phenotypic variation and phosphorylation of P270 in double-stranded RNA virus-infected Trichomonas vaginalis. Infect. Immun. 67(8), 4298–4302 (1999).
  • Peterson KM, Alderete JF. Host plasma proteins on the surface of pathogenic Trichomonas vaginalis. Infect. Immun. 37(2), 755–762 (1982).
  • Wendel KA, Rompalo AM, Erbelding EJ, Chang TH, Alderete JF. Double-stranded RNA viral infection of Trichomonas vaginalis infecting patients attending a sexually transmitted diseases clinic. J. Infect. Dis. 186(4), 558–561 (2002).
  • Wang AL, Wang CC. A linear double-stranded RNA in Trichomonas vaginalis. J. Biol. Chem. 260(6), 3697–3702 (1985).
  • Wang AL, Wang CC. The double-stranded RNA in Trichomonas vaginalis may originate from virus-like particles. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 83(20), 7956–7960 (1986).
  • Wang A, Wang CC, Alderete JF. Trichomonas vaginalis phenotypic variation occurs only among trichomonads infected with the double-stranded RNA virus. J. Exp. Med. 166(1), 142–150 (1987).
  • Weber B, Mapeka TM, Maahlo MA, Hoosen AA. Double stranded RNA virus in South African Trichomonas vaginalis isolates. J. Clin. Pathol. 56(7), 542–543 (2003).
  • Rendon-Maldonado J, Espinosa-Cantellano M, Soler C, Torres JV, Martinez-Palomo A. Trichomonas vaginalis: in vitro attachment and internalization of HIV-1 and HIV-1-infected lymphocytes. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 50(1), 43–48 (2003).
  • Rappelli P, Carta F, Delogu G et al. Mycoplasma hominis and Trichomonas vaginalis symbiosis: multiplicity of infection and transmissibility of M. hominis to human cells. Arch. Microbiol. 175(1), 70–74 (2001).
  • van Belkum A, van Der SC, van der Meijden WI, Verbrugh HA, Sluiters HJ. A clinical study on the association of Trichomonas vaginalis and Mycoplasma hominis infections in women attending a sexually transmitted disease (STD) out-patient clinic. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 32(1), 27–32 (2001).
  • Cates W Jr. Estimates of the incidence and prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases in the United States. Sex. Transm. Dis. 26(4 Suppl), 2–7 (1999).
  • Zhang ZF. Epidemiology of Trichomonas vaginalis. A prospective study in China. Sex. Transm. Dis. 23(5), 415–424 (1996).
  • Sorvillo F, Kovacs A, Kerndt P, Stek A, Muderspach L, Sanchez-Keeland L. Risk factors for trichomoniasis among women with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection at a public clinic in Los Angeles County, California: implications for HIV prevention. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 58(4), 495–500 (1998).
  • Wendel KA, Erbelding EJ, Gaydos CA, Rompalo AM. Trichomonas vaginalis polymerase chain reaction compared with standard diagnostic and therapeutic protocols for detection and treatment of vaginal trichomoniasis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35(5), 576–580 (2002).
  • Buve A, Weiss HA, Laga M et al. The epidemiology of trichomoniasis in women in four African cities. AIDS 15(Suppl. 4), S89–S96 (2001).
  • Cu-Uvin S, Hogan JW, Warren D et al. Prevalence of lower genital tract infections among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-seropositive and high-risk HIV- seronegative women. Clin. Infect. Dis. 29(5), 1145–1150 (1999).
  • Dragsted DM, Farholt S, Lind I. Occurrence of trichomoniasis in women in Denmark, 1967–1997. Sex. Transm. Dis. 28(6), 326–329 (2001).
  • Madico G, Quinn TC, Rompalo A, McKee KT Jr, Gaydos CA. Diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis infection by PCR using vaginal swab samples. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36(11), 3205–3210 (1998).
  • Lawing LF, Hedges SR, Schwebke JR. Detection of trichomonosis in vaginal and urine specimens from women by culture and PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38(10), 3585–3588 (2000).
  • Hardy PH, Hardy JB, Nell EE, Graham DA, Spence MR, Rosenbaum RC. Prevalence of six sexually transmitted disease agents among pregnant inner-city adolescents and pregnancy outcome. Lancet 2(8398), 333–337 (1984).
  • Kaydos-Daniels SC, Miller WC, Hoffman I et al. The use of specimens from various genitourinary sites in men, to detect Trichomonas vaginalis infection. J. Infect. Dis. 189(10), 1926–1931 (2004).
  • Pepin J, Sobela F, Deslandes S et al. Etiology of urethral discharge in West Africa: the role of Mycoplasma genitalium and Trichomonas vaginalis. Bull.World Health Organ. 79(2), 118–126 (2001).
  • Schwebke JR, Hook EW III. High rates of Trichomonas vaginalis among men attending a sexually transmitted diseases clinic: implications for screening and urethritis management. J. Infect. Dis. 188(3), 465–468 (2003).
  • Wendel KA, Erbelding EJ, Gaydos CA, Rompalo AM. Use of urine polymerase chain reaction to define the prevalence and clinical presentation of Trichomonas vaginalis in men attending an STD clinic. Sex. Transm. Infect. 79(2), 151–153 (2003).
  • Morency P, Dubois MJ, Gresenguet G et al. Aetiology of urethral discharge in Bangui, Central African Republic. Sex. Transm. Infect. 77(2), 125–129 (2001).
  • Fouts AC, Kraus SJ. Trichomonas vaginalis: reevaluation of its clinical presentation and laboratory diagnosis. J. Infect. Dis. 141(2), 137–143 (1980).
  • Landers DV, Wiesenfeld HC, Heine RP, Krohn MA, Hillier SL. Predictive value of the clinical diagnosis of lower genital tract infection in women. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 190(4), 1004–1010 (2004).
  • Krieger JN, Riley DE, Roberts MC, Berger RE. Prokaryotic DNA sequences in patients with chronic idiopathic prostatitis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34(12), 3120–3128 (1996).
  • Skerk V, Schonwald S, Krhen I et al. Aetiology of chronic prostatitis. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 19(6), 471–474 (2002).
  • Cotch MF, Pastorek JG, Nugent RP et al. Trichomonas vaginalis associated with low birth weight and preterm delivery. Sex. Transm. Dis. 24(6), 353–360 (1997).
  • Minkoff H, Grunebaum AN, Schwarz RH et al. Risk factors for prematurity and premature rupture of membranes: a prospective study of the vaginal flora in pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 150(8), 965–972 (1984).
  • Gram IT, Macaluso M, Churchill J, Stalsberg H. Trichomonas vaginalis (TV) and human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and the incidence of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) grade III. Cancer Causes Control 3(3), 231–236 (1992).
  • Yap EH, Ho TH, Chan YC et al. Serum antibodies to Trichomonas vaginalis in invasive cervical cancer patients. Genitourin. Med. 71(6), 402–404 (1995).
  • Laga M, Manoka A, Kivuvu M et al. Non-ulcerative sexually transmitted diseases as risk factors for HIV-1 transmission in women: results from a cohort study. AIDS 7(1), 95–102 (1993).
  • Wang CC, McClelland RS, Reilly M et al. The effect of treatment of vaginal infections on shedding of human immunodeficiency virus Type 1. J. Infect. Dis 183(7), 1017–1022 (2001).
  • Hobbs MM, Kazembe P, Reed AW et al. Trichomonas vaginalis as a cause of urethritis in Malawian men. Sex. Transm. Dis. 26(7), 381–387 (1999).
  • Moodley P, Wilkinson D, Connolly C, Moodley J, Sturm AW. Trichomonas vaginalis is associated with pelvic inflammatory disease in women infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin. Infect. Dis. 34(4), 519–522 (2002).
  • Gardner WA Jr, Culberson DE, Bennett BD. Trichomonas vaginalis in the prostate gland. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 110(5), 430–432 (1986).
  • Kuberski T. Trichomonas vaginalis associated with nongonococcal urethritis and prostatitis. Sex. Transm. Dis. 7(3), 135–136 (1980).
  • Bowden FJ, Paterson BA, Mein J et al. Estimating the prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis, Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and human papillomavirus infection in indigenous women in northern Australia. Sex. Transm. Infect. 75(6), 431–434 (1999).
  • Tiwara S, Passey M, Clegg A et al. High prevalence of trichomonal vaginitis and chlamydial cervicitis among a rural population in the highlands of Papua New Guinea. PNG Med. J.39(3), 234–238 (1996).
  • Catterall RD, Nicol CS. Is trichomonal infestation a venereal disease? Br. Med. J. 11177–11179 (1960).
  • Weston TE, Nicol CS. Natural history of trichomonal infection in males. Br. J. Vener. Dis. 39, 251–257 (1963).
  • Poch F, Levin D, Levin S, Dan M. Modified thioglycolate medium: a simple and reliable means for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34(10), 2630–2631 (1996).
  • Gopalkrishnan K, Hinduja IN, Kumar TC. Semen characteristics of asymptomatic males affected by Trichomonas vaginalis. J. In Vitro Fert. Embryo. Transf. 7(3), 165–167 (1990).
  • Tuttle JP Jr, Holbrook TW, Derrick FC. Interference of human spermatozoal motility by Trichomonas vaginalis. J. Urol. 118(6), 1024–1025 (1977).
  • Kingston MA, Bansal D, Carlin EM. ‘Shelf life’ of Trichomonas vaginalis. Int. J. STD AIDS 14(1), 28–29 (2003).
  • Wiese W, Patel SR, Patel SC, Ohl CA, Estrada CA. A meta-analysis of the Papanicolaou smear and wet mount for the diagnosis of vaginal trichomoniasis. Am. J. Med. 108(4), 301–308 (2000).
  • Borchardt KA, Zhang MZ, Shing H, Flink K. A comparison of the sensitivity of the InPouch TV, Diamond’s and Trichosel media for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis. Genitourin. Med. 73(4), 297–298 (1997).
  • Levi MH, Torres J, Pina C, Klein RS. Comparison of the InPouch TV culture system and Diamond’s modified medium for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35(12), 3308–3310 (1997).
  • Mohamed OA, Cohen CR, Kungu D et al. Urine proves a poor specimen for culture of Trichomonas vaginalis in women. Sex. Transm. Infect. 77(1), 78–79 (2001).
  • DeMeo LR, Draper DL, McGregor JA et al. Evaluation of a deoxyribonucleic acid probe for the detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in vaginal secretions. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 174(4), 1339–1342 (1996).
  • Huppert JS, Batteiger BE, Braslins P et al. Use of an immunochromatographic assay for rapid detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in vaginal specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43(2), 684–687 (2005).
  • Briselden AM, Hillier SL. Evaluation of affirm VP Microbial Identification Test for Gardnerella vaginalis and Trichomonas vaginalis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32(1), 148–152 (1994).
  • Lara-Torre E, Pinkerton JS. Accuracy of detection of Trichomonas vaginalis organisms on a liquid-based papanicolaou smear. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 188(2), 354–356 (2003).
  • Krieger JN, Verdon M, Siegel N, Critchlow C, Holmes KK. Risk assessment and laboratory diagnosis of trichomoniasis in men. J. Infect. Dis 166(6), 1362–1366 (1992).
  • Schwebke JR, Lawing LF. Improved detection by DNA amplification of Trichomonas vaginalis in males. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40(10), 3681–3683 (2002).
  • Dunne RL, Dunn LA, Upcroft P, O’Donoghue PJ, Upcroft JA. Drug resistance in the sexually transmitted protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis. Cell Res. 13(4), 239–249 (2003).
  • Viitanen J, Haataja H, Mannisto PT. Concentrations of metronidazole and tinidazole in male genital tissues. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 28(6), 812–814 (1985).
  • Forna F, Gulmezoglu AM. Interventions for treating trichomoniasis in women. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2, CD000218 (2003).
  • Bergan T, Arnold E. Pharmacokinetics of metronidazole in healthy adult volunteers after tablets and suppositories. Chemotherapy 26(4), 231–241 (1980).
  • Bergan T, Leinebo O, Blom-Hagen T, Salvesen B. Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of metronidazole after tablets, suppositories and intravenous administration. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. Suppl. 9145–9160 (1984).
  • Houghton GW, Thorne PS, Smith J, Templeton R, Collier J. Comparison of the pharmacokinetics of metronidazole in healthy female volunteers following either a single oral or intravenous dose. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 8(4), 337–341 (1979).
  • Jensen JC, Gugler R. Single- and multiple-dose metronidazole kinetics. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 34(4), 481–487 (1983).
  • Loft S, Dossing M, Poulsen HE et al. Influence of dose and route of administration on disposition of metronidazole and its major metabolites. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 30(4), 467–473 (1986).
  • Cunningham FE, Kraus DM, Brubaker L, Fischer JH. Pharmacokinetics of intravaginal metronidazole gel. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 34(11), 1060–1065 (1994).
  • Mattila J, Mannisto PT, Mantyla R, Nykanen S, Lamminsivu U. Comparative pharmacokinetics of metronidazole and tinidazole as influenced by administration route. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 23(5), 721–725 (1983).
  • Hager WD, Brown ST, Kraus SJ, Kleris GS, Perkins GJ, Henderson M. Metronidazole for vaginal trichomoniasis. Seven-day vs. single-dose regimens. JAMA244(11), 1219–1220 (1980).
  • Thin RN, Symonds MA, Booker R, Cook S, Langlet F. Double-blind comparison of a single dose and a five-day course of metronidazole in the treatment of trichomoniasis. Br. J. Vener. Dis. 55(5), 354–356 (1979).
  • Fitzgerald MR, Ahmed-Jushuf I, Radcliffe KW, Rooney G, Welch J, Wilson JD. Revised UK national guidelines on sexually transmitted infections and closely related conditions 2002. Sex. Transm. Infect. 78(2), 81–82 (2002).
  • LCDC Expert Working Group on Canadian Guidelines for Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Canadian STD Guidelines (1998).
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines 2002. MMWR Recomm. Rep. 51(RR-6), 1–78 (2005).
  • Wood BA, Monro AM. Pharmacokinetics of tinidazole and metronidazole in women after single large oral doses. Br. J. Vener. Dis. 51(1), 51–53 (1975).
  • Mannisto P, Karhunen M, Mattila J et al. Concentrations of metronidazole and tinidazole in female reproductive organs after a single intravenous infusion and after repeated oral administration. Infection 12(3), 197–201 (1984).
  • Viitanen J, Auvinen O, Tunturi T. Serum and tissue tinidazole concentrations after intravenous infusion. Chemotherapy 29(1), 13–17 (1983).
  • Anjaeyulu R, Gupte SA, Desai DB. Single-dose treatment of trichomonal vaginitis: a comparison of tinidazole and metronidazole. J. Int. Med. Res. 5(6), 438–441 (1977).
  • Begum SF, Alid SE, Ali S. Short course nitronitroimidazole in the treatment of vaginal trichomoniasis. Curr. Ther. Res. 28(6), 922–926 (1980).
  • Bloch B, Smyth E. The treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis vaginitis. An open controlled prospective study comparing a single dose of metronidazole tablets, benzoyl metronidazole suspension and tinidazole tablets. S Afr. Med. J. 67(12), 455–457 (1985).
  • Gabriel G, Robertson E, Thin RN. Single dose treatment of trichomoniasis. J. Int. Med. Res. 10(2), 129–130 (1982).
  • Garud M, Lulla M, Saraiya U, Vaidya S. Oral single-dose therapy of trichomonal vaginitis: comparison of tinidazole and metronidazole. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. India 28, 347–350 (1978).
  • Manorama HT, Shenoy DR. Single-dose oral treatment of vaginal trichomoniasis with tinidazole and metronidazole. J. Int. Med. Res. 6(1), 46–49 (1978).
  • Prasertsawat P, Jetsawangsri T. Split-dose metronidazole or single-dose tinidazole for the treatment of vaginal trichomoniasis. Sex. Transm. Dis. 19(5), 295–297 (1992).
  • Sawyer PR, Brogden RN, Pinder RM, Speight TM, Avery GS. Tinidazole: a review of its antiprotozoal activity and therapeutic efficacy. Drugs 11(6), 423–440 (1976).
  • Morgan I. Metronidazole treatment in pregnancy. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 15(6), 501–502 (1978).
  • Ross SM, van Middelkoop A. Trichomonas infection in pregnancy-does it affect perinatal outcome? S Afr. Med. J. 63(15), 566–567 (1983).
  • Klebanoff MA, Carey JC, Hauth JC et al. Failure of metronidazole to prevent preterm delivery among pregnant women with asymptomatic Trichomonas vaginalis infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 345(7), 487–493 (2001).
  • Kigozi GG, Brahmbhatt H, Wabwire-Mangen F et al. Treatment of Trichomonas in pregnancy and adverse outcomes of pregnancy: a subanalysis of a randomized trial in Rakai, Uganda. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 189(5), 1398–1400 (2003).
  • Giknis ML, Damjanov I. The transplacental effects of ethanol and metronidazole in Swiss Webster mice. Toxicol. Lett. 19(1–2), 37–42 (1983).
  • Burtin P, Taddio A, Ariburnu O, Einarson TR, Koren G. Safety of metronidazole in pregnancy: a meta-analysis. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 172(2 Pt 1), 525–529 (1995).
  • Caro-Paton T, Carvajal A, Martin de Diego I, Martin-Arias LH, Alvarez Requejo A, Rodriguez Pinilla E. Is metronidazole teratogenic? A meta-analysis. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 44(2), 179–182 (1997).
  • Czeizel AE, Kazy Z, Vargha P. Oral tinidazole treatment during pregnancy and teratogenesis. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 83(3), 305–306 (2003).
  • Diav-Citrin O, Shechtman S, Gotteiner T, Arnon J, Ornoy A. Pregnancy outcome after gestational exposure to metronidazole: a prospective controlled cohort study. Teratology 63(5), 186–192 (2001).
  • Sorensen HT, Larsen H, Jensen ES et al. Safety of metronidazole during pregnancy: a cohort study of risk of congenital abnormalities, preterm delivery and low birth weight in 124 women. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 44(6), 854–856 (1999).
  • Robinson SC. Trichomonal vaginitis resistant to metronidazole. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 86, 665 (1962).
  • Schmid G, Narcisi E, Mosure D, Secor WE, Higgins J, Moreno H. Prevalence of metronidazole-resistant Trichomonas vaginalis in a gynecology clinic. J. Reprod. Med. 46(6), 545–549 (2001).
  • Lossick JG, Muller M, Gorrell TE. In vitro drug susceptibility and doses of metronidazole required for cure in cases of refractory vaginal trichomoniasis. J. Infect. Dis. 153(5), 948–955 (1986).
  • Crowell AL, Sanders-Lewis KA, Secor WE. In vitro metronidazole and tinidazole activities against metronidazole-resistant strains of Trichomonas vaginalis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47(4), 1407–1409 (2003).
  • Lossick JG, Kent HL. Trichomoniasis: trends in diagnosis and management. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 165(4 Pt 2), 1217–1222 (1991).
  • Sobel JD, Nyirjesy P, Brown W. Tinidazole therapy for metronidazole-resistant vaginal trichomoniasis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 33(8), 1341–1346 (2001).
  • Cedillo-Rivera R, Chavez B, Gonzalez-Robles A, Tapia A, Yepez-Mulia L. In vitro effect of nitazoxanide against Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia intestinalis and Trichomonas vaginalis trophozoites. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 49(3), 201–208 (2002).
  • Livengood CH III, Lossick JG. Resolution of resistant vaginal trichomoniasis associated with the use of intravaginal nonoxynol-9. Obstet. Gynecol. 78(5 Pt 2), 954–956 (1991).
  • Sears SD, O’Hare J. In vitro susceptibility of Trichomonas vaginalis to 50 antimicrobial agents. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 32(1), 144–146 (1988).
  • Pattman RS, Sprott MS, Kearns AM, Earnshaw M. Failure of mebendazole to cure trichomonal vaginitis resistant to metronidazole: case reports. Genitourin. Med. 65(4), 274–275 (1989).
  • Antonelli NM, Diehl SJ, Wright JW. A randomized trial of intravaginal nonoxynol 9 versus oral metronidazole in the treatment of vaginal trichomoniasis. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 182(5), 1008–1010 (2000).
  • Saginur R, Hawley CR, Bartlett JG. Colitis associated with metronidazole therapy. J. Infect. Dis. 141(6), 772–774 (1980).
  • Kurohara ML, Kwong FK, Lebherz TB, Klaustermeyer WB. Metronidazole hypersensitivity and oral desensitization. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 88(2), 279–280 (1991).
  • Pearlman MD, Yashar C, Ernst S, Solomon W. An incremental dosing protocol for women with severe vaginal trichomoniasis and adverse reaction to metronidazole. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 174(3), 934–936 (1996).
  • Frytak S, Moertel CH, Childs DS. Neurologic toxicity associated with high-dose metronidazole therapy. Ann. Intern. Med. 88(3), 361–362 (1978).
  • Urtasun RC, Rabin HR, Partington J. Human pharmacokinetics and toxicity of high-dose metronidazole administered orally and intravenously. Surgery 93(1 Pt 2), 145–148 (1983).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.