6
Views
7
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Perspective

Roles of solar UV radiation and vitamin D in human health and how to obtain vitamin D

Pages 563-577 | Published online: 10 Jan 2014

References

  • Jablonski NG, Chaplin G. The evolution of human skin coloration. J. Hum. Evol.39, 57–106 (2000).
  • Chaplin G. Geographic distribution of environmental factors influencing human skin coloration. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.125, 292–302 (2004).
  • Rajakumar K, Thomas SB. Reemerging nutritional rickets: a historical perspective. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med.159, 335–341 (2005).
  • Albert MR, Ostheimer KG. The evolution of current medical and popular attitudes toward ultraviolet light exposure: part 2. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.48, 909–918 (2003).
  • Albert MR, Ostheimer KG. The evolution of current medical and popular attitudes toward ultraviolet light exposure: part 3. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.49, 1096–1106 (2003).
  • Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Willett WC, Wong JB et al. Fracture prevention with vitamin D supplementation: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA293, 2257–2264 (2005).
  • Johnell O, Kanis JA. An estimate of the worldwide prevalence and disability associated with osteoporotic fractures. Osteoporos. Int.17, 1726–1733 (2006).
  • Garland CF, Garland FC. Do sunlight and vitamin D reduce the likelihood of colon cancer? Int. J. Epidemiol.9, 227–231 (1980).
  • Garland FC, Garland CF, Gorham ED, Young JF. Geographic variation in breast cancer mortality in the United States: a hypothesis involving exposure to solar radiation. Prev. Med.19, 614–622 (1990).
  • Lefkowitz ES, Garland CF. Sunlight, vitamin D, and ovarian cancer mortality rates in US women. Int. J. Epidemiol.23, 1133–1136 (1994).
  • Schwartz GG, Hulka BS. Is vitamin D deficiency a risk factor for prostate cancer? (Hypothesis). Anticancer Res.10, 1307–1311 (1990).
  • Freedman DM, Zahm SH, Dosemeci M. Residential and occupational exposure to sunlight and mortality from non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma: composite (threefold) case–control study. Br. Med. J. 314, 1451–1455 (1997).
  • Devesa SS, Grauman DJ, Blot WJ et al.Atlas of Cancer Mortality in the United States, 1950–1994. NIH Publication No. 99–4564, USA (1999).
  • Grant WB. An estimate of premature cancer mortality in the U.S. due to inadequate doses of solar ultraviolet-B radiation. Cancer94, 1867–1875 (2002).
  • Garland CF, Garland FC, Gorham ED et al. The role of vitamin D in cancer prevention. Am. J. Public Health.96, 252–261 (2006).
  • Giovannucci E, Liu Y, Rimm EB et al. Prospective study of predictors of vitamin D status and cancer incidence and mortality in men. J. Natl Cancer Inst.98, 451–459 (2006).
  • Grant WB, Garland CF. The association of solar ultraviolet B (UVB) with reducing risk of cancer: multifactorial ecologic analysis of geographic variation in age-adjusted cancer mortality rates. Anticancer Res.26, 2687–2699 (2006).
  • Boscoe FP, Schymura MJ. Solar ultraviolet-B exposure and cancer incidence and mortality in the United States, 1993–2000. BMC Cancer6, 264 (2006).
  • Grant WB. An ecologic study of cancer mortality rates in Spain with respect to indices of solar UV irradiance and smoking. Int. J. Cancer120, 1123–1127 (2007).
  • Robsahm TE, Tretli S, Dahlback A, Moan J. Vitamin D3 from sunlight may improve the prognosis of breast-, colon- and prostate cancer (Norway). Cancer Causes Control.15, 149–158 (2004).
  • Porojnicu A, Robsahm TE, Berg JP, Moan J. Season of diagnosis is a predictor of cancer survival. Sun-induced vitamin D may be involved: A possible role of sun-induced Vitamin D. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol.103, 675–678 (2007).
  • Zhou W, Heist RS, Liu G et al. Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels predict survival in early-stage non-small-cell lung cancer patients. J. Clin. Oncol.25, 479–485 (2007).
  • Lim HS, Roychoudhuri R, Peto J, Schwartz G, Baade P, Moller H. Cancer survival is dependent on season of diagnosis and sunlight exposure. Int. J. Cancer119, 1530–1536 (2006).
  • Weinstock MA. Epidemiologic investigation of nonmelanoma skin cancer mortality: the Rhode Island Follow-Back Study. J. Invest. Dermatol.102, S6–S9 (1994).
  • de Vries E, Soerjomataram I, Houterman S, Louwman MW, Coebergh JW. Decreased risk of prostate cancer after skin cancer diagnosis: a protective role of ultraviolet radiation? Am. J. Epidemiol.165, 966–972 (2007).
  • Rukin NJ, Zeegers MP, Ramachandran S et al. A comparison of sunlight exposure in men with prostate cancer and basal cell carcinoma. Br. J. Cancer96, 523–528 (2007).
  • Grant WB. A meta-analysis of second cancers after a diagnosis of nonmelanoma skin cancer: additional evidence that solar ultraviolet-B irradiance reduces the risk of internal cancers. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol.103, 668–674 (2007).
  • Tuohimaa P, Pukkala E, Scelo G et al. Does solar exposure, as indicated by the non-melanoma skin cancers, protect from solid cancers: vitamin D as a possible explanation. Eur. J. Cancer43, 1701–1712 (2007).
  • Osborne JE, Hutchinson PE. Vitamin D and systemic cancer: is this relevant to malignant melanoma? Br. J. Dermatol.147, 197–213 (2002).
  • Gorham ED, Garland CF, Garland FC et al. Optimal vitamin D status for colorectal cancer prevention a quantitative meta analysis. Am. J. Prev. Med.32, 210–216 (2007).
  • Garland CF, Gorham ED, Mohr SB et al. Vitamin D and prevention of breast cancer: Pooled analysis. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol.103, 708–711 (2007).
  • Hill AB. The environment and disease: association or causation? Proc. R. Soc. Med.58, 295–300 (1965).
  • Hughes AM, Armstrong BK, Vajdic CM et al. Sun exposure may protect against non-Hodgkin lymphoma: a case–control study. Int. J. Cancer112, 865–871 (2004).
  • Bentham G. Association between incidence of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and solar ultraviolet radiation in England and Wales. Br. Med. J. 312, 1128–1131 (1996).
  • Purdue MP, Hartge P, Davis S et al. Sun exposure, vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer Causes Control.18, 989–999 (2007).
  • Skinner HG, Michaud DS, Giovannucci E et al. Vitamin D intake and the risk for pancreatic cancer in two cohort studies. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev.15, 1688–1695 (2006).
  • Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Vieth R, Azad A et al. A prospective nested case-control study of vitamin D status and pancreatic cancer risk in male smokers. Cancer Res.66, 10213–10219 (2006).
  • Tuohimaa P, Tenkanen L, Ahonen M et al. Both high and low levels of blood vitamin D are associated with a higher prostate cancer risk: a longitudinal, nested case–control study in the Nordic countries. Int. J. Cancer108, 104–108 (2004).
  • Lamprecht SA, Lipkin M. Chemoprevention of colon cancer by calcium, vitamin D and folate: molecular mechanisms. Nat. Rev. Cancer3, 601–614 (2003).
  • Mullin GE, Dobs A. Vitamin D and its role in cancer and immunity: a prescription for sunlight. Nutr. Clin. Pract.22, 305–322 (2007).
  • Jackson RD, LaCroix AZ, Gass M et al. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of fractures. N. Engl. J. Med.354, 669–683 (2006).
  • Wactawski-Wende J, Kotchen JM, Anderson GL et al. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of colorectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med.354, 684–696 (2006).
  • Grant WB, Garland CF. A critical review of studies on vitamin D in relation to colorectal cancer. Nutr. Cancer48, 115–123 (2004).
  • Lappe JM, Travers-Gustafson D, Davies KM, Recker RR, Heaney RP. Vitamin D and calcium supplementation reduces cancer risk: results of a randomized trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.85, 1586–1591 (2007).
  • Giovannucci E. The epidemiology of vitamin D and cancer incidence and mortality: a review (United States). Cancer Causes Control.16, 83–95 (2005).
  • Grant WB. Epidemiology of disease risks in relation to vitamin D insufficiency. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol.92, 65–79 (2006).
  • Krause R, Matulla-Nolte B, Essers M, Brown A, Hopfenmuller W. UV radiation and cancer prevention: what is the evidence? Anticancer Res.26, 2723–2727 (2006).
  • Kricker A, Armstrong B. Does sunlight have a beneficial influence on certain cancers? Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol.92, 132–139 (2006).
  • Van der Rhee HJ, de Vries E, Coebergh JW. Does sunlight prevent cancer? A systematic review. Eur. J. Cancer42, 2222–2232 (2006).
  • Davies PD. A possible link between vitamin D deficiency and impaired host defence to Mycobacterium tuberculosis.Tubercle66, 301–306 (1985).
  • Liu PT, Stenger S, Li H, Wenzel L et al. Toll-like receptor triggering of a vitamin D-mediated human antimicrobial response. Science311, 1770–1773 (2006).
  • Sadeghi K, Wessner B, Laggner U et al. Vitamin D3 down-regulates monocyte TLR expression and triggers hyporesponsiveness to pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Eur. J. Immunol.36, 361–370 (2006).
  • Liu PT, Stenger S, Tang DH, Modlin RL. Cutting edge: vitamin D-mediated human antimicrobial activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis is dependent on the induction of cathelicidin. J. Immunol.179(4), 2060–2063 (2007).
  • Gombart AF, Borregaard N, Koeffler HP. Human cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide (CAMP) gene is a direct target of the vitamin D receptor and is strongly up-regulated in myeloid cells by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. FASEB J. 2005;19:1067-77.
  • Martineau AR, Honecker FU, Wilkinson RJ, Griffiths CJ. Vitamin D in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol.103, 793–798 (2007).
  • Martineau AR, Wilkinson RJ, Wilkinson KA et al. A single dose of vitamin D enhances immunity to mycobacteria. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.176, 208–213 (2007).
  • Tachi Y, Shimpuku H, Nosaka Y et al. Vitamin D receptor gene polymorphism is associated with chronic periodontitis. Life Sci.73, 3313–3321 (2003).
  • Dietrich T, Nunn M, Dawson-Hughes B, Bischoff-Ferrari HA. Association between serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D and gingival inflammation. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.82, 575–580 (2005).
  • Mohammad Alizadeh AH, Ranjbar M et al. Association of promoter polymorphism of the CD14 C (-159) T endotoxin receptor gene with chronic hepatitis B. World J. Gastroenterol.12, 5717–5720 (2006).
  • Cannell JJ, Vieth R, Umhau JC et al. Epidemic influenza and vitamin D. Epidemiol. Infect.134, 1129–1140 (2006).
  • Aloia JF, Li-Ng M. Correspondence. Epidemiol. Infect. (2007) (Epub ahead of print).
  • Avenell A, Cook JA, Maclennan GS, Macpherson GC. Vitamin D supplementation to prevent infections: a sub-study of a randomised placebo-controlled trial in older people (RECORD trial, ISRCTN 51647438). Age Ageing (2007) (Epub ahead of print).
  • Yusuf S, Piedimonte G, Auais A et al. The relationship of meteorological conditions to the epidemic activity of respiratory syncytial virus. Epidemiol. Infect.135(7), 1077–1090 (2007).
  • van Etten E, Verlinden L, Giulietti A et al. The vitamin D receptor gene FokI polymorphism: functional impact on the immune system. Eur. J. Immunol.37, 395–405 (2007).
  • Viboud C, Tam T, Fleming D, Miller MA, Simonsen L. 1951 influenza epidemic, England and Wales, Canada, and the United States. Emerg. Infect. Dis.12, 661–668 (2006).
  • Beadling C, Slifka MK. How do viral infections predispose patients to bacterial infections? Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis.17, 185–191 (2004).
  • Danai PA, Moss M, Mannino DM, Martin GS. The epidemiology of sepsis in patients with malignancy. Chest.129, 1432–1440 (2006).
  • Esper AM, Moss M, Lewis CA, Nisbet R, Mannino DM, Martin GS. The role of infection and comorbidity: factors that influence disparities in sepsis. Crit. Care. Med.34, 2576–2582 (2006).
  • Danai PA, Sinha S, Moss M, Haber MJ, Martin GS. Seasonal variation in the epidemiology of sepsis. Crit. Care Med.35, 410–415 (2007).
  • Kurtzke JF. Geographic distribution of multiple sclerosis: an update with special reference to Europe and the Mediterranean region. Acta Neurol. Scand.62, 65–80 (1980).
  • Wallin MT, Page WF, Kurtzke JF. Multiple sclerosis in US veterans of the Vietnam era and later military service: race, sex, and geography. Ann. Neurol.55, 65–71 (2004).
  • van der Mei IA, Ponsonby AL, Blizzard L, Dwyer T. Regional variation in multiple sclerosis prevalence in Australia and its association with ambient ultraviolet radiation. Neuroepidemiology20, 168–174 (2001).
  • Islam T, Gauderman WJ, Cozen W, Mack TM. Childhood sun exposure influences risk of multiple sclerosis in monozygotic twins. Neurology69, 381–388 (2007).
  • Goldacre MJ, Seagroatt V, Yeates D, Acheson ED. Skin cancer in people with multiple sclerosis: a record linkage study. J. Epidemiol. Community Health.58, 142–144 (2004).
  • Munger KL, Levin LI, Hollis BW, Howard NS, Ascherio A. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of multiple sclerosis. JAMA296, 2832–2838 (2006).
  • Ascherio A, Munger KL. Environmental risk factors for multiple sclerosis. Part II: noninfectious factors. Ann. Neurol.61, 504–513 (2007).
  • Cantorna MT. Vitamin D and its role in immunology: multiple sclerosis, and inflammatory bowel disease. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol.92, 60–64 (2006).
  • Hypponen E, Laara E, Reunanen A et al. Intake of vitamin D and risk of type I diabetes: a birth-cohort study. Lancet.358, 1500–1503 (2001).
  • Merlino LA, Curtis J, Mikuls TR et al. Vitamin D intake is inversely associated with rheumatoid arthritis: results from the Iowa Women’s Health Study. Arthritis. Rheum.50, 72–77 (2004).
  • Rostand SG. Ultraviolet light may contribute to geographic and racial blood pressure differences. Hypertension.30, 150–156 (1997).
  • Forman JP, Giovannucci E, Holmes MD et al. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of incident hypertension. Hypertension.49, 1063–1069 (2007).
  • Zittermann A. Vitamin D and disease prevention with special reference to cardiovascular disease. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol.92, 39–48 (2006).
  • Martins D, Wolf M, Pan D et al. Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and the serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in the United States: data from the third national health and nutrition examination survey. Arch. Intern. Med.167, 1159–1165 (2007).
  • Zittermann A. Vitamin D in preventive medicine: are we ignoring the evidence? Br. J. Nutr.89, 552–572 (2003).
  • Holick MF. Vitamin D: importance in the prevention of cancers, type 1 diabetes, heart disease, and osteoporosis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.79, 362–371 (2004).
  • Peterlik M, Cross HS. Dysfunction of the vitamin D endocrine system as common cause for multiple malignant and other chronic diseases. Anticancer Res.26, 2581–2588 (2006).
  • Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Giovannucci E, Willett WC, Dietrich T, Dawson–Hughes B. Estimation of optimal serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D for multiple health outcomes. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.84, 18–28 (2006).
  • Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency. N. Engl. J. Med.357, 266–281 (2007).
  • Vieth R, Bischoff-Ferrari H, Boucher BJ et al. The urgent need to recommend an intake of vitamin D that is effective. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.85, 649–650 (2007).
  • Lucas R, McMichael T, Smith W, Armstrong B. Solar ultraviolet radiation: global burden of disease from solar ultraviolet radiation. Environmental Burden of Disease Series. No. 13. World Health Organization (2006).
  • Johnell O, Kanis JA. An estimate of the worldwide prevalence, mortality and disability associated with hip fracture. Osteoporos Int.15, 897–902 (2004).
  • Lucas RM, Repacholi MH, McMichael AJ. Is the current public health message on UV exposure correct? Bull. World Health Organ.84, 485–491 (2006).
  • Grant WB. The current public health message on UV exposure overlooks many of the health benefits. Bull. World Health Organ.85(5), A419 (2007).
  • Norval M, Cullen AP, de Gruijl FR et al. The effects on human health from stratospheric ozone depletion and its interactions with climate change. Photochem. Photobiol. Sci.6, 232–251 (2007).
  • de Gruijl FR, Longstreth J, Norval M et al. Health effects from stratospheric ozone depletion and interactions with climate change. Photochem. Photobiol. Sci.2, 16–28 (2003).
  • Grant WB, Moan J, Reichrath J. Comment on “The effects on human health from stratospheric ozone depletion and its interactions with climate change by M. Norval, A.P. Cullen, F.R. de Gruijl, J. Longstreth, Y. Takizawa, R.M. Lucas, F.P. Noonan and J.C. van der Leun, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2007, 6, 232. Photochem. Photobiol. Sci.6, 912–915 (2007).
  • Norval M, de Gruijl FR. Reply to the ‘Comment on “The effects on human health from stratospheric ozone depletion and its interactions with climate change”‘ By WB Grant, J. Moan and J. Reichrath, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2007, 6, DOI: 10.1039/b705482c. Photochem. Photobiol. Sci.6, 916–918 (2007).
  • Wolpowitz D, Gilchrest BA. The vitamin D questions: how much do you need and how should you get it? J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.54, 301–317 (2006).
  • Gilchrest BA. Sun protection and vitamin D: three dimensions of obfuscation. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol.103, 655–663 (2007).
  • English DR, Armstrong BK, Kricker A et al. Case–control study of sun exposure and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin. Int. J. Cancer77, 347–353 (1998).
  • Agar NS, Halliday GM, Barnetson RS et al. The basal layer in human squamous tumors harbors more UVA than UVB fingerprint mutations: a role for UVA in human skin carcinogenesis. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA101, 4954–4959 (2004).
  • Garland CF, Garland FC, Gorham ED. Rising trends in melanoma. An hypothesis concerning sunscreen effectiveness. Ann. Epidemiol.3, 103–110 (1993).
  • Scotto J, Fears TR, Kraemer KH, Fraumeni JF Jr. Nonmelanoma skin cancer. In: Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention (2nd Edition). Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni JF Jr (Eds). Oxford University Press, NY, USA, 1313–1330 (1996).
  • Moan J, Dahlback A, Setlow RB. Epidemiological support for an hypothesis for melanoma induction indicating a role for UVA radiation. Photochem. Photobiol.70, 243–247 (1999).
  • Kricker A, Armstrong BK, Goumas C et al. Ambient UV, personal sun exposure and risk of multiple primary melanomas. Cancer Causes Control18, 295–304 (2007).
  • Ferlay J, Bray F, Pisani P, Parkin DM. GLOBOCAN 2002: Cancer Incidence, Mortality and Prevalence Worldwide IARC CancerBase No. 5. Version 2.0. IARC Press, Lyon, France (2004).
  • Kennedy C, Bajdik CD, Willemze R et al. The influence of painful sunburns and lifetime sun exposure on the risk of actinic keratoses, seborrheic warts, melanocytic nevi, atypical nevi, and skin cancer. J. Invest. Dermatol.120, 1087–1093 (2003).
  • Gandini S, Sera F, Cattaruzza MS et al. Meta-analysis of risk factors for cutaneous melanoma: II. Sun exposure. Eur. J. Cancer41, 45–60 (2005).
  • Berwick M, Armstrong BK, Ben-Porat L et al. Sun exposure and mortality from melanoma. J. Natl Cancer Inst.97, 195–199 (2005).
  • Agar N, Young AR. Melanogenesis: a photoprotective response to DNA damage? Mutat. Res.571, 121–132 (2005).
  • Lang J, Hayward N, Goldgar D et al. The M53I mutation in CDKN2A is a founder mutation that predominates in melanoma patients with Scottish ancestry. Genes Chromosomes Cancer46, 277–287 (2007).
  • De Fabo EC, Noonan FP, Fears T, Merlino G. Ultraviolet B but not ultraviolet A radiation initiates melanoma. Cancer Res.64, 6372–6376 (2004).
  • De Fabo EC. Initial studies on an in vivo action spectrum for melanoma induction. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol.92, 97–104 (2006).
  • Hill HZ, Hill GJ. UVA, pheomelanin and the carcinogenesis of melanoma. Pigment Cell Res.13(Suppl. 8), 140–144 (2000).
  • Azizi E, Lusky A, Kushelevsky AP, Schewach-Millet M. Skin type, hair color, and freckles are predictors of decreased minimal erythema ultraviolet radiation dose. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.19, 32–38 (1988).
  • Wang SQ, Setlow R, Berwick M, Polsky D, Marghoob AA, Kopf AW, Bart RS. Ultraviolet A and melanoma: a review. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.44, 837–846 (2001).
  • Millen AE, Tucker MA, Hartge P et al. Diet and melanoma in a case-control study. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev.13, 1042–1051 (2004).
  • Fears TR, Bird CC, Guerry D 4th et al. Average midrange ultraviolet radiation flux and time outdoors predict melanoma risk. Cancer Res.62, 3992–3996 (2002).
  • Eide MJ, Weinstock MA. Association of UV index, latitude, and melanoma incidence in nonwhite populations – US Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program, 1992 to 2001. Arch. Dermatol.141, 477–481 (2005).
  • Bentham G, Aase A. Incidence of malignant melanoma of the skin in Norway, 1955–1989: associations with solar ultraviolet radiation, income and holidays abroad. Int. J. Epidemiol.25, 1132–1138 (1996).
  • Agredano YZ, Chan JL, Kimball RC, Kimball AB. Accessibility to air travel correlates strongly with increasing melanoma incidence. Melanoma Res.16, 77–81 (2006).
  • Garcia RL, Davis CM. PABA. A more effective sunscreen. Mil. Med.138, 331–333 (1973).
  • Diffey BL. Sunscreens and melanoma: the future looks bright. Br. J. Dermatol.153, 378–381 (2005).
  • Dennis LK, Beane Freeman LE, VanBeek MJ. Sunscreen use and the risk for melanoma: a quantitative review. Ann. Intern. Med.139, 966–978 (2003).
  • Rodenas JM, Delgado-Rodriguez M, Herranz MT, Tercedor J, Serrano S. Sun exposure, pigmentary traits, and risk of cutaneous malignant melanoma: a case–control study in a Mediterranean population. Cancer Causes Control.7, 275–283 (1996).
  • Espinosa Arranz J, Sanchez Hernandez JJ, Bravo Fernandez P et al. Cutaneous malignant melanoma and sun exposure in Spain. Melanoma Res.9, 199–205 (1999).
  • Gallagher RP, Lee TK, Bajdik CD. Sunscreens: can they prevent skin cancer? Prevention of Skin Cancer. Hill D, Elwood JM, English DR (Eds). Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands, 141–156 (2004).
  • Doré JF, Boniol M, Chignol MC, Autier P. The usefulness of sunscreens. In: Skin Cancer Prevention. Ringborg U, Brandberg Y, Breitbart EW, Greinert R (Eds). Informa Healthcare, NY, USA, 241–278 (2007).
  • Autier P, Boniol M, Dore JF. Sunscreen use and increased duration of intentional sun exposure: still a burning issue. Int. J. Cancer121, 1–5 (2007).
  • Hussein MR. Ultraviolet radiation and skin cancer: molecular mechanisms. J. Cutan. Pathol.32, 191–205 (2005).
  • Boniol M, Doré JF, Autier P, Smans M, Boyle P. Descriptive epidemiology of skin cancer incidence and mortality. In: Skin Cancer Prevention. Ringborg U, Brandberg Y, Breitbart EW, Greinert R (Eds). Informa Healthcare, NY, USA, 203–223 (2007).
  • Taylor HR. Ultraviolet radiation and the eye: an epidemiologic study. Trans. Am. Ophthalmol. Soc.87, 802–853 (1989).
  • Fisher GJ, Kang S, Varani J et al. Mechanisms of photoaging and chronological skin aging. Arch. Dermatol.138, 1462–1470 (2002).
  • Norval M. The effect of ultraviolet radiation on human viral infections. Photochem. Photobiol.82, 1495–1504 (2006).
  • Sanders CJ, Van Weelden H, Kazzaz GA et al. Photosensitivity in patients with lupus erythematosus: a clinical and photobiological study of 100 patients using a prolonged phototest protocol. Br. J. Dermatol.149, 131–137 (2003).
  • He YY, Ramirez DC, Detweiler CD, Mason RP, Chignell CF. UVA-ketoprofen-induced hemoglobin radicals detected by immuno-spin trapping. Photochem. Photobiol.77, 585–591 (2003).
  • Grant WB, Holick MF. Benefits and requirements of vitamin D for optimal health: a review. Altern. Med. Rev.10, 94–111 (2005).
  • Webb AR. Who, what, where and when – influences on cutaneous vitamin D synthesis. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol.92, 17–25 (2006).
  • Webb AR, DeCosta BR, Holick MF. Sunlight regulates the cutaneous production of vitamin D3 by causing its photodegradation. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.68, 882–887 (1989).
  • Adams JS, Clemens TL, Parrish JA, Holick MF. Vitamin-D synthesis and metabolism after ultraviolet irradiation of normal and vitamin-D-deficient subjects. N. Engl. J. Med.306, 722–725 (1982).
  • Samanek AJ, Croager EJ, Gies P et al. Estimates of beneficial and harmful sun exposure times during the year for major Australian population centres. Med. J. Aust.184, 338–341 (2006).
  • Webb AR, Engelsen O. Calculated ultraviolet exposure levels for a healthy vitamin D status. Photochem. Photobiol.82, 1697–1703 (2006).
  • Heaney RP, Davies KM, Chen TC, Holick MF, Barger-Lux MJ. Human serum 25-hydroxycholecalciferol response to extended oral dosing with cholecalciferol. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.77, 204–210 (2003).
  • Harris SS. Vitamin D and African Americans. J. Nutr.136, 1126–1129 (2006).
  • MacLaughlin J, Holick MF. Aging decreases the capacity of human skin to produce vitamin D3. J. Clin. Invest.76, 1536–1538 (1985).
  • Looker AC, Dawson-Hughes B, Calvo MS et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status of adolescents and adults in two seasonal subpopulations from NHANES III. Bone30, 771–777 (2002).
  • Matsuoka LY, Wortsman J, Hanifan N, Holick MF. Chronic sunscreen use decreases circulating concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D. A preliminary study. Arch. Dermatol.124, 1802–1804 (1988).
  • Marks R, Foley PA, Jolley D et al. The effect of regular sunscreen use on vitamin D levels in an Australian population. Results of a randomized controlled trial. Arch. Dermatol.131, 415–421 (1995).
  • Newton R, Roman E, Fear N, Carpenter L. Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and solar ultraviolet radiation. Data are inconsistent. Br. Med. J.313, 298 (1996).
  • Gardner MJ, Winter PD, Taylor CP, Acheson ED. Atlas of Cancer Mortality in England and Wales, 1968–1978. John Wiley & Sons, NY, USA (1983).
  • Sliney DH, Wengraitis S. Is a differentiated advice by season and region necessary? Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol.92, 150–160 (2006).
  • Sheehan JM, Cragg N, Chadwick CA, Potten CS, Young AR. Repeated ultraviolet exposure affords the same protection against DNA photodamage and erythema in human skin types II and IV but is associated with faster DNA repair in skin type IV. J. Invest. Dermatol.118, 825–829 (2002).
  • Koutkia P, Lu Z, Chen TC, Holick MF. Treatment of vitamin D deficiency due to Crohn’s disease with tanning bed ultraviolet B radiation. Gastroenterology.121, 1485–1488 (2001).
  • Tangpricha V, Turner A, Spina C et al. Tanning is associated with optimal vitamin D status (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration) and higher bone mineral density. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.80, 1645–1649 (2004).
  • Houghton LA, Vieth R. The case against ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) as a vitamin supplement. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.84, 694–697 (2006).
  • Feskanich D, Singh V, Willett WC, Colditz GA. Vitamin A intake and hip fractures among postmenopausal women. JAMA287, 47–54 (2002).
  • Johansson S, Melhus H. Vitamin A antagonizes calcium response to vitamin D in man. J. Bone Miner. Res.16, 1899–1905 (2001).
  • Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition. Update on Vitamin D. Position Statement by the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition. Her Majesty’s Stationary Office, Colegate, Norwich, UK, 68 (2007).
  • Lu Z, Chen TC, Zhang A et al. An evaluation of the vitamin D3 content in fish: is the vitamin D content adequate to satisfy the dietary requirement for vitamin D? J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol.103, 642–644 (2007).
  • Calvo MS, Whiting SJ, Barton CN. Vitamin D fortification in the United States and Canada: current status and data needs. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.80, S1710–S1716 (2004).
  • Whiting SJ, Calvo MS. Dietary recommendations to meet both endocrine and autocrine needs of Vitamin D. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol.97, 7–12 (2005).
  • Natri AM, Salo P, Vikstedt T et al. Bread fortified with cholecalciferol increases the serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration in women as effectively as a cholecalciferol supplement. J. Nutr.136, 123–127 (2006).
  • Mozaffarian D, Rimm EB. Fish intake, contaminants, and human health: evaluating the risks and the benefits. JAMA296, 1885–1899 (2006).
  • Dahl-Jorgensen K, Joner G, Hanssen KF. Relationship between cows’ milk consumption and incidence of IDDM in childhood. Diabetes Care.14, 1081–1083 (1991).
  • Adebamowo CA, Spiegelman D, Danby FW et al. High school dietary dairy intake and teenage acne. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.52, 207–214 (2005).
  • Tseng M, Breslow RA, Graubard BI, Ziegler RG. Dairy, calcium, and vitamin D intakes and prostate cancer risk in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Epidemiologic Follow-up Study cohort. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.81, 1147–1154 (2005).
  • Chen H, O’Reilly E, McCullough ML et al. Consumption of dairy products and risk of Parkinson’s disease. Am. J. Epidemiol.165, 998–1006 (2007).
  • Feskanich D, Willett WC, Colditz GA. Calcium, vitamin D, milk consumption, and hip fractures: a prospective study among postmenopausal women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.77, 504–511 (2003).
  • Tangpricha V, Koutkia P, Rieke SM et al. Fortification of orange juice with vitamin D: a novel approach for enhancing vitamin D nutritional health. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.77, 1478–1483 (2003).
  • Reichrath J. The challenge resulting from positive and negative effects of sunlight: how much solar UV exposure is appropriate to balance between risks of vitamin D deficiency and skin cancer? Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol.92, 9–16 (2006).
  • Lucas RM, Ponsonby AL. Considering the potential benefits as well as adverse effects of sun exposure: can all the potential benefits be provided by oral vitamin D supplementation? Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol.92, 140–149 (2006).
  • Grant WB, Garland CF, Holick, MF. Comparisons of estimated economic burdens due to insufficient solar ultraviolet irradiance and vitamin D and excess solar UV irradiance for the United States. Photochem. Photobiol.81, 1276–1286 (2005).
  • Grant WB. Insufficient sunlight may kill 45,000 Americans each year from internal cancer. J. Cos. Dermatol.3, 176–178 (2004).
  • Grant WB. Dietary links to Alzheimer’s disease. Alz. Dis. Rev.2, 42–55 (1997).
  • Albert MR, Ostheimer KG. The evolution of current medical and popular attitudes toward ultraviolet light exposure: part 1. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.47, 930–937 (2002).
  • Montague M, Borland R, Sinclair C. Slip! Slop! Slap! and SunSmart, 1980–2000: Skin cancer control and 20 years of population-based campaigning. Health Educ. Behav.28, 290–305 (2001).
  • van der Mei IA, Ponsonby AL, Engelsen O et al. The high prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency across Australian populations is only partly explained by season and latitude. Environ. Health Perspect.115, 1132–1139 (2007).

Websites

  • Cancer Mortality Maps & Graphs http://cancer.gov/atlasplus/new.html
  • Canadian Cancer Society Announces Vitamin D Recommendation www.cancer.ca/ccs/internet/mediareleaselist/0,3208,3172_1613121606_1997621989_langId-en,00.html
  • Environmental Burden of Disease Series, No. 13 www.who.int/uv/health/solaruvradfull_180706.pdf
  • Current Public Health Message on UV Exposure Overlooks Many Health Benefits www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/85/5/06-035089.pdf
  • CANCERMondial Statistical Information System www-dep.iarc.fr
  • Risks and Benefits of Sun Exposure: Position Statement www.cancer.org.au/documents/RisksBenefitsSunExposure03May07.pdf
  • SACN: Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition Reports www.sacn.gov.uk/reports/#
  • Dietary Links to Alzheimer’s Disease www.sunarc.org/JAD97.pdf

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.