Clinical management of post-pyloric enteral feeding in children

References

• Braegger C, Decsi T, Dias JA, et al. ESPGHAN committee on nutrition. practical approach to paediatric enteral nutrition: a comment by the espghan committee on nutrition. JPGN 2010;51:110-22
   Google Scholar
• Axelrod D, Kazmerski K, Iyer K. Pediatric enteral nutrition. JPEN 2006;30:S21-6
   Google Scholar
• Gustke RF, Varma RR, Soergel KH. Gastric reflux during perfusion of the proximal small bowel. Gastroenterology 1970;59:890-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lien HC, Chang CS, Yeh HZ, et al. The effect of jejunal meal feeding on gastroesophageal reflux. Scand J Gastroenterol 2001;36:343-6
   Google Scholar
• Rosen R, Hart K, Walaumont M. Incidence of gastroesophageal reflux during transpyloric feeds. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2011;52(5):532-5
   Google Scholar
• Ledeboer M, Masclee AA, Biemond I, Lamers CB. Effect of intragastric or intraduodenal administration of a polymeric diet on gallbladder motility, small-bowel transit time, and hormone release. Am J Gastroenterol 1998;93:2089-96
   Google Scholar
• O’Keefe SJ, Lee RB, Anderson FP, et al. Physiological effects of enteral and parenteral feeding on pancreaticobiliary secretion in humans. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2003;284:G27-36
   Google Scholar
• Kaushik N, Pietraszewski M, Holst JJ, O’Keefe SJ. Enteral feeding without pancreatic stimulation. Pancreas 2005;31:353-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ragins H, Levenson SM, Signer R, et al. Intrajejunal administration of an elemental diet at neutral pH avoids pancreatic stimulation. Studies in dog and man. Am J Surg 1973;126:606-14
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wolfe BM, Keltner RM, Kaminski DL. The effect of an intraduodenal elemental diet on pancreatic secretion. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1975;140:241-5
   Google Scholar
• Windsor AC, Kanwar S, Li AG, et al. Compared with parenteral nutrition, enteral feeding attenuates the acute phase response and improves disease severity in acute pancreatitis. Gut 1998;42:431-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalfarentzos F, Kehagias J, Mead N, et al. Enteral nutrition is superior to parenteral nutrition in severe acute pancreatitis: results of a randomized prospective trial. Br J Surg 1997;84:1665-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta R, Patel K, Calder PC, et al. A randomised clinical trial to assess the effect of total enteral and total parenteral nutritional support on metabolic, inflammatory and oxidative markers in patients with predicted severe acute pancreatitis (APACHE II > or =6). Pancreatology 2003;3:406-13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spiller RC, Trotman IF, Higgins BE, et al. The ileal brake-inhibition of jejunal motility after ileal fat perfusion in man. Gut 1984;25(4):365-74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Read NW, McFarlane A, Kinsman RI, et al. Effect of infusion of nutrient solutions into the ileum on gastrointestinal transit and plasma levels of neurotensin and enteroglucagon. Gastroenterology 1984;86:274-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Citters GW, Lin HC. The ileal brake: a fifteen-year progress report. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 1999;1:404-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Keller J, Runzi M, Goebell H, Layer P. Duodenal and ileal nutrient deliveries regulate human intestinal motor and pancreatic responses to a meal. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 1997;272(3 pt 1):G632-7
   Google Scholar
• Gröger G, Unger A, Holst JJ, et al. Ileal carbohydrates inhibit cholinergically stimulated exocrine pancreatic secretions in humans. Int J Pancreatol 1997;22:23-9
   Google Scholar
• Makola D, Krenitsky J, Parrish C, et al. Efficacy of enteral nutrition for the treatment of pancreatitis using standard enteral formula. Am J Gastroenterol 2006;101:2347-55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiengou LE, Gloro R, Pouzoulet J, et al. Semi-elemental formula or polymeric formula: is there a better choice for enteral nutrition in acute pancreatitis? Randomized comparative study. JPEN 2006;30:1-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hecketsweiler P, Vidon N, Emonts P, Bernier JJ. Absorption of elemental and complex nutritional solutions during a continuous jejunal perfusion in man. Digestion 1979;19:213-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vison N, Hecketsweiler P, Butel J, Bernier JJ. Effect of continuous jejunal perfusion of elemental and complex nutritional solutions on pancreatic enzyme secretion in human subjects. Gut 1978;19:194-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ford EG, Hull SF, Jennings LM, Andrassy RJ. Clinical comparison of tolerance to elemental or polymeric enteral feedings in the postoperative patient. J Am Coll Nutr 1992;11:11-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wen J, Phillips SF, Sarr MG, et al. PYY and GLP-1 contribute to feedback inhibition from the canine ileum and colon. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 1995;269(6 pt 1):G945-52
   Google Scholar
• Vu MK, Van Der Veek P, Frölich M, et al. Does jejunal feeding activate exocrine pancreatic secretion? Eur J Clin Invest 1999;29(12):1053-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou W, Kiswardy J, Kaushik N, et al. The effect of distal jejunal feeding on in vivo trypsin synthesis and turnover. Gastroenterology 2006;130:A-611
   Google Scholar
• Silk DBA. Enteral diets: clinical uses and information. In: Payne- James J, Grimble G, Silk DBA, editors. Artificial nutrition support in clinical practice. 2nd edition. Greenwich Medical Media Ltd; London: 2001. p. 305-31
   Google Scholar
• Polak J, Pearse J, Bloom S, et al. Identification of cholecystokinin secreting cells. Lancet 1975;2(7943):1016-18
   Google Scholar
• Calam JA, Ellis A, Dockray GJ. Identification and measurement of molecular variants of cholecystokinin in duodenal mucosa and plasma. J Clin Invest 1982;69:218-25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopman WPM, Jansen JBMJ, Lamers CBHW. Comparative study of the effects of equal amounts of fat protein and starch on plasma cholecystokinin in man. Scand J Gastroenterol 1985;20:843-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer BM, Beglinger C, Jansen JBMJ, et al. Role of cholecystokinin in regulation of gastrointestinal motor functions. Lancet 1989;2(8653):12-15
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt WE, Creutzfeldt W, Schleser A, et al. Role of CCK in regulation of pancreatico-biliary functions and GI motility in humans: Effects of loxiglumide. Am J Physiol 1991;260:G197-206
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Varga G, Balint A, Burghardt B, et al. Involvement of endogenous CCK and CCK1 receptors in colonic motor function. Br J Pharmacol 2004;141:1275-84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleibeuker JH, Berkhuis H, Jansen JH, et al. Cholecystokinin is a physiological hormonal mediator of fat-induced inhibition of gastric emptying in man. Eur J Clin Invest l988;l8:l73-7
   Google Scholar
• de Boer SY, Masclee A, Jebbink MC, et al. Effect of acute hyperglycaemia on gallbladder contraction induced by cholecystokinin in humans. Gut 1993;34:1128-32
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kleibeuker JH, Boersma-van Ek W. Acute effects of continuous nasogastric tube feeding on gastric function: Comparison of a polymeric and a nonpolymeric formula. JPKN 1991;15(1):80-4
   Google Scholar
• Meyer JH, Kelly GA, Spingola IJ, et al. Canine gut receptors mediating pancreatic responses to luminal L-amino acids. Am J Physiol 1976;231:669-77
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Colombel JE, Sutton A, Chayvialle JA, et al. Cholecystokinin release and biliopancreatic secretion in response to selective perfusion of the duodenal loop with aminoacids in man. Gut 1988;29:1158-66
   Google Scholar
• Bruley des Varannes S, Cherbut C, Schnee M, et al. Effects of lactulose on fasting small intestine myoelectrical activity in humans. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol l992;4:539-45
   Google Scholar
• Thor P, Laskiewicv J, Konturek P, et al. Cholecystokinin in the regulation of intestinal motility and pancreatic secretion in dogs. Am J Physiol 1988;255:G498-504
   Google Scholar
• Schwartz TW. Pancreatic polypeptide: A hormone under vagal control. Gastroenterology 1983;85:1411-25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier R, Hildebrand P, Thumshim M, et al. Effect of loxiglumide. A cholecystokinin antagonist, on pancreatic polypeptide release in humans. Gastroenlerology 1990;99:1757-62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fujimura M, Khalil T, Sakamoto T, et al. Intestinal phase of pancreatic polypeptide release: The effect of segmental perfusion of the small intestine with various secretagogues. Pancreas 1990;5:183-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Sario JA, Foutch PG, Sanowski RA. Poor results with percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy. Gastrointest Endosc 1990;36:257-60
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wolfsen HC, Kozarek RA, Ball TJ, et al. Tube dysfunction following percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy and jejunostomy. Gastrointest Endosc 1990;36:261-3
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Silk DBA. The evolving role of post-ligament of Treitz. Nasojejunal feeding in enteral nutrition and the need for improved feeding tube design and placement methods. JPEN 2011;35(3):303-7
   Google Scholar
• Ponsky J, Aszodi A. Percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy. Am J Gastroenterol 1984;79:113-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gottfried E, Plumser A. Endoscopic gastrojejunostomy: a technique to establish small bowel feeding without laparotomy. Gastrointest Endosc 1984;30:355-7
   Google Scholar
• Doede T, Faiss S, Schier F. Jejunal feeding tubes via gastrostomy in children. Endoscopy 2002;34:539-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godbole P, Margobanthu G, Crabbe D, et al. Limitations and uses of gastrojejunal feeding tubes. Arch Dis Child 2002;86:134-7
   Google Scholar
• MacFadyen B, Catalano M, Raijman I, et al. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy with jejunal extension: A new technique. Am J Gastroenterol 1992;87:725-8
   Google Scholar
• Chait P, Weinberg J, Connolly B, et al. Retrograde percutaneous gastrostomy and gastrojejunostomy in 505 children: a 4 ½ year experience. Radiology 1996;201:691-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters J, Simpson P, Tolia V. Experience with gastrojejunal feeding tubes in children. Am J Gastroenterol 1997;92:476-80
   Google Scholar
• Marik P, Zaloga G. Gastric versus postpyloric feeding: a systemic review. Crit Care 2003;7:46-50
   Google Scholar
• Faries M, Rombeau J. Use of gastrostomy and combined gastrojejunostomy tubes for enteral feeding. World J Surg 1999;23:603-7
   Google Scholar
• Davis A, Bruce A, Mangiaracina C, et al. Moving from tube to oral feeding in medically fragile nonverbal toddlers. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2009;49:233-6
   Google Scholar
• O’Keefe SJD. A guide to enteral access procedures and enteral nutrition. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol 2009;6:207-15
   Google Scholar
• Hillard AE, Waddell JJ, Metzier MH, McAlpin D. Fluoroscopically guided nasoenteric feeding tube placement versus bedside placement. South Med J 1995;88:425-8
   Google Scholar
• Roberts S, Echererra P, Gabriel SA. Devices and techniques for bedside enteral feeding tube placement. Nutr Clin Pract 2007;22:412-20
   Google Scholar
• Wiggins TF, Delegge MH. Evaluation of a new technique for endoscopic nasojejunal feeding tube placement. Gastrointest Endosc 2006;63:590-5
   Google Scholar
• O’Keefe SJ, Foody W, Gill S. Transnasal endoscopic placement of feeding tubes in the intensive care unit. JPEN 2003;27:349-54
   Google Scholar
• Burns SM, Carpenter R, Blevins C, et al. Detection of inadvertent airway intubation during gastric tube insertion: capnography versus a colormetric carbon dioxide detector. Am J Crit Care 2006;15:188-95
   Google Scholar
• Gabrien SA, McDaniel B, Ashley DW, et al. Magnetically guided nasoenteral feeding tubes: a new technique. Am Surg 2001;67:544-8
   Google Scholar
• Phang J, Marsh W, Prager R. Feeding tube placement with the aid of a new electromagnetic transmitter [abstract]. JPEN 2006;30:S48-9
   Google Scholar
• Stockdale W, Nordbeck S, Kadro O, Hale L. Nasoenteric feeding tube insertion utilizing an electromagnetic tube placement system [abstract]. Nutr Clin Pract 2007;22:118
   Google Scholar
• Rivera RJ, Campara J, Seidner D, Hamilton C. Small bowel feeding tube placement using an electromagnetic tube placement device: accuracy of tip placement. JPEN 2009;33:202-3
   Google Scholar
• Thurley PD, Hopper MA, Jobling JC, Teahon K. Fluoroscopic insertion of postpyloric feeding tubes: success rates and complications. Clin Radiol 2008;63:543-8
   Google Scholar
• Traill ZC, Nolan DJ. Technical report: intubation times using a new enteroclysis tube. Clin Radiol 1994;50:339-40
   Google Scholar
• Welpe P, Frutiger A, Vanek P, Kleger GR. Jejunal feeding tubes can be efficiently and independently placed by intensive care unit team. JPEN 2010;34:121-4
   Google Scholar
• Rudin S, Bednarek DR, Miller JA. Dose reduction during fluoroscopic placement of feeding tubes. Radiology 1991;178:6-7
   Google Scholar
• Lewis BS. Perform PEJ, not PED. Gastrointest Endosc 1990;36:311-13
   Google Scholar
• Shike M, Latkany L. Direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am 1998;8:569-80
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fan AC, Baron TH, Rumalla A, Harewood GC. Comparison of direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy and PEG with jejunal extension. Gastrointest Endosc 2002;56:890-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bumpers HL, Luchette FA, Doerr RJ, Hoover EL. A simple technique for insertion of PEJ via PEG. Surg Endosc 1994;8:121-3
   Google Scholar
• Shike M, Latkany L. Direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am 1998;8:569-80
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shike M, Wallach C, Likier H. Direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomies. Gastrointest Endosc 1991;37:62-5
   Google Scholar
• Varadarajulu S, Delegge MH. Use of a 19-gauge injection needle as a guide for direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy tube placement. Gastrointest Endosc 2003;57:942-5
   Google Scholar
• DeLegge MH, Duckworth PFJr, McHenry LJr, et al. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrojejunostomy: a dual center safety and efficacy trial. JPEN 1995;19:239-43
   Google Scholar
• McIntyre CM, Monk HM. Medication absorption considerations in patients with postpyloric enteral feeding tubes. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2014;71(7):549-56
   Google Scholar
• Fortunato J, Darbari A, Mitchell S, et al. The limitations of gastrojejunal (G-J) feeding tubes in children: a 9-year pediatric hospital database analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2005;100:186-9
   Google Scholar
• Friedman J, Ahmed S, Connolly B, et al. Complications associated with image-guided gastrostomy and gastrojejunostomy tubes in children. Pediatrics 2004;114:458-61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah M, Klooster M, Yanni G, Shah A. Frequency and methods of gastrojejunal tube (GJT) replacement in children—a single center experience. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2009;49:E83-4
   Google Scholar
• Al-Zubeidi D, Demir H, Bishop WP, Rahhal RM. Gastrojejunal feeding tube use by gastroenterologists in a pediatric academic center. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2013;56(5):523-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niv E, Fireman Z, Vaisman N. Post-pyloric feeding. World J Gastroenterol 2009;15(11):1281-8
   Google Scholar
• Edes TE, Walk BE, Austin JL. Diarrhea in tube-fed patients: feeding formula not necessarily the cause. Am J Med 1990;88:91-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirby DF, Delegge MH, Fleming CR. American Gastroenterological Association technical review on tube feeding for enteral nutrition. Gastroenterology 1995;108:1282-301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marvin RG, McKinley BA, McQuiggan M, et al. Nonocclusive bowel necrosis occurring in critically ill trauma patients receiving enteral nutrition manifests no reliable clinical signs for early detection. Am J Surg 2000;179:7-12
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heuschkel RB, Gottrand F, Devarajan K, et al. ESPGHAN Position Statement on the Management of Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrostomy (PEG) in Children and Adolescents. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2014
   Google Scholar
• O’Keefe S1, Rolniak S, Raina A, et al. Enteral feeding patients with gastric outlet obstruction. Nutr Clin Pract 2012;27(1):76-81
   Google Scholar
• Raval MV, Phillips JD. Optimal enteral feeding in children with gastric dysfunction: surgical jejunostomy vs image-guided gastrojejunal tube placement. J Pediatr Surg 2006;41(10):1679-82
   Google Scholar
• Zhang L, Huang YH, Yao W, et al. Trans-nasal esophagogastroduodenoscopy for placement of naso-enteric feeding tubes in patients with severe upper gastrointestinal diseases. J Dig Dis 2012;13:310-15
   Google Scholar
• Mirtallo JM, Forbes A, McClave SA, et al. International Consensus Guideline Committee Pancreatitis Task Force. International consensus guidelines for nutrition therapy in pancreatitis. JPEN 2012;36:284-91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClave SA, Greene LM, Snider HL, et al. Comparison of the safety of early enteral vs parenteral nutrition in mild acute pancreatitis. JPEN 1997;21:014-20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marik PE, Zaloga GP. Meta-analysis of parenteral nutrition versus enteral nutrition in patients with acute pancreatitis. BMJ 2004;328:1407-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Keefe SJ, Broderick T, Turner M, et al. Nutrition in the management of necrotizing pancreatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2003;1:315-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seminerio J, O’Keefe SJ. Jejunal feeding in patients with pancreatitis. Nutr Clin Pract 2014;29(3):283-6
   Google Scholar
• Ma M, Chen J, Li FB, et al. Value of nasojejunal nutrition in the treatment of children with acute pancreatitis. Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi 2013;51(2):136-40
   Google Scholar
• de Lucas C, Moreno M, López-Herce J, et al. Transpyloric enteral nutrition reduces the complication rate and cost in the critically ill child. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2000;30:175-80
   Google Scholar
• McClave SA, Martindale RG, Rice TW, et al. Feeding the critically ill patient. Crit Care Med 2014;42:2600-10
   Google Scholar
• Nguyen NQ. Pharmacological therapy of feed intolerance in the critically ills. World J Gastrointest Pharmacol Ther 2014;5:148-55
   Google Scholar
• Mehta NM, Bechard LJ, Cahill N, et al. Nutritional practices and their relationship to clinical outcomes in critically ill children–an international multicenter cohort study. Crit Care Med 2012;40:2204-11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diamanti A, Basso MS, Castro M, et al. Irreversible Intestinal Failure: Prevalence and Prognostic Factors. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2008;47:450-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christensen J, Dent J, Malagelada J-R, et al. Pseudo-obstruction. Gastroenterol 1990;3:107-19
   Google Scholar
• Hyman PE, Di Lorenzo C; Intestinal pseudo-obstruction. In: Willie R, Hyams JS, eds. Pediatric gastrointestinal disease: pathophysiology, diagnosis, management. 1st ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1993;641-51
   Google Scholar
• Cogliandro RF, Antonucci A, De Giorgio R, et al. Patient-reported outcomes and gut dysmotility in functional gastrointestinal disorders. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2011;23:1084-e538
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyman PE, Di Lorenzo C, Rehm D. Chronic intestinal pseudoobstruction (ClP). A cause of intestinal failure. Transplant Proc 1994;26:1440
   Google Scholar
• Pitt HA, Mann LL, Berquist WE, et al. Chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction: management with total parenteral nutrition and a venting enterostomy. Arch Surg 1985;120:614-18
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Di Lorenzo C, Youssef NN. Diagnosis and management of intestinal motility disorders. Semin Pediatr Surg 2010;19:50-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cucchiara S, Borrelli O, Salvia G, et al. A normal gastrointestinal motility excludes chronic intestinal pseudoobstruction in children. Dig Dis Sci 2000;45(2):258-64
   Google Scholar
• Summers RW, Anuras S, Green J. Jejunal manometry patterns in health, partial intestinal obstruction, and pseudo-obstruction. Gastroenterology 1983;85:1301-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hyman PE, McDiarmid SV, Napolitano J, et al. Antroduodenal manometry in children with chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction. J Pediatr 1988;112:899-905
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Lorenzo C, FIores A, Reddy SN, Hyman PE. Colonic manometry differentiates causes of intractable constipation in children. J Pediatr 1992;120:690-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyman PE, Di Lorenzo C, Hoon A, et al. Antroduodenal manometry and intestinal pathology correlate in congenital chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction. Gastroenterology 1993;104:A525
   Google Scholar
• Di Lorenzo C, Flores AF, Buie T, Hyman PE. Intestinal Motility and Jejunal Feeding in Children With Chronic Intestinal Pseudo-obstruction. Gastroenterology 1995;108:1379-85
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Freeman C, Delegge MH. Small bowel endoscopic enteral access. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2009;25:155-9
   Google Scholar
• Malki M, Sathyaprasad B. A review of enteral strategies in infant short bowel syndrome: evidence-based or NICU culture? J Pediatr Surg 2013;48:1099-112
   Google Scholar
• Pironi L, Joly F, Forbes A, et al. Home Artificial Nutrition & Chronic Intestinal Failure Working Group of the European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN). Long-term follow-up of patients on home parenteral nutrition in Europe: implications for intestinal transplantation. Gut 2011;60(1):17-25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colomb V1, Goulet O. Nutrition support after intestinal transplantation: how important is enteral feeding? Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2009;12(2):186-9
   Google Scholar
• Berseth CL. Feeding methods for the preterm infant. Semin Neonatol 2001;6:417-24
   Google Scholar
• Milner RD, Minoli I, Moro G, et al. Growth and metabolic and hormonal profiles during transpyloric and nasogastric feeding in preterm infants. Acta Paediatr Scand 1981;70:9-13
   Google Scholar
• Dellagrammaticas HD, Duerden BI, Milner RD. Upper intestinal bacterial flora during transpyloric feeding. Arch Dis Child 1983;58:115-19
   Google Scholar
• Vazquez C, Arroyos A, Vallis I, et al. Necrotising entercolitis. Increased incidence in infants receiving nasoduodenal feeding. Arch Dis Child 1980;55:826
   Google Scholar
• Vinocur P, Stine MJ. Risk factors for late-onset necrotizing enterocolitis. Indiana Med 1990;83:478-80
   Google Scholar
• Boros SJ, Reynolds JW. Duodenal perforation: a complication of neonatal nasojejunal feeding. J Pediatr 1974;85:107-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raine PA, Goel KM, Young DG, et al. Pyloric stenosis and transpyloric feeding. Lancet 1982;2:821-2
   Google Scholar
• Watson J, McGuire W. Transpyloric versus gastric tube feeding for preterm infants (Review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;28:2
   Google Scholar
• Srivastava R, Downey E, O’Gorman M, et al. Impact of fundoplication versus gastrojejunal feeding tubes on mortality and in preventing aspiration pneumonia in young children with neurologic impairment who have gastroesophageal reflux disease. Pediatrics 2009;123:338-45
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan PB, Lambert B, Rose M, et al. Prevalence and severity of feeding and nutritional problems in children with neurological impairment: Oxford Feeding Study. Dev Med Child Neurol 2000;42:674-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaney RH, Eyman RK, Miller CR. Comparison of respiratory mortality in the profoundly mentally retarded and in the less retarded. J Ment Defic Res 1979;23:1-7
   Google Scholar
• Marik PE. Aspiration pneumonitis and aspiration pneumonia. N Engl J Med 2001;344:665-71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maudsley G, Hutton JL, Pharoah PO. Cause of death in cerebral palsy: a descriptive study. Arch Dis Child 1999;81:390-4
   Google Scholar
• Plioplys AV, Kasnicka I, Lewis S, et al. Survival rates among children with severe neurologic disabilities. South Med J 1998;91:161-72
   Google Scholar
• Diaz DM, Gibbons TE, Heiss K, et al. Antireflux surgery outcomes in pediatric gastroesophageal reflux disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2005;100:1844-52
   Google Scholar
• Lasser MS, Liao JG, Burd RS. National trends in the use of antireflux procedures for children. Pediatrics 2006;118:1828-35
   Google Scholar
• O’Neill JK, O’Neill PJ, Goth-Owens T, et al. Care-giver evaluation of anti-gastroesophageal reflux procedures in neurologically impaired children: What is the real-life outcome? J Pediatr Surg 1996;31:375-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothenberg SS. Laparoscopic redo Nissen fundoplication in infants and children. Surg Endosc 2006;20:1518-20
   Google Scholar
• Goldin AB, Sawin R, Seidel KD, Flum DR. Do antireflux operations decrease the rate of reflux-related hospitalizations in children? Pediatrics 2006;118:2326-33
   Google Scholar
• Albanese CT, Towbin RB, Ulman I, et al. Percutaneous gastrojejunostomy versus Nissen fundoplication for enteral feeding of the neurologically impaired child with gastroesophageal reflux. J Pediatr 1993;123:371-5
   Google Scholar
• Wales PW, Diamond IR, Dutta S, et al. Fundoplication and gastrostomy versus image-guided gastrojejunal tube for enteral feeding in neurologically impaired children with gastroesophageal reflux. J Pediatr Surg 2002;37:407-12
   Google Scholar
• King M, Barnhart DC, O’Gorman M, et al. Effect of Gastrojejunal Feedings on Visits and Costs in Children With Neurologic Impairment. JPGN 2014;58:518-24
   Google Scholar
• Austic RE. Development and Adaptation of Protein Digestion. J Nutr 1985;115:686-97
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goulet O, Olieman J, Ksiazyk J, et al. Neonatal short bowel syndrome as a model of intestinal failure: physiological background for enteral feeding. Clinical Nutrition 2013;32:162-71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zoppi G, Andreotti G Pajno-Ferrara F, et al. Exocrine pancreas function in premature and full Term Neonates. Pedia Res 1972;6:880-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar