Should we treat chronic obstructive pulmonary disease as a cardiovascular disease?

References

• Rodriguez-Roisin R, Anzueto A, Bourbeau J, et al. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. NHLBI/WHO Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) Workshop summary 2010. [Epub ahead of print]
   Google Scholar
• Anthonisen NR, Skeans MA, Wise RA, et al. The effects of a smoking cessation intervention on 14.5-year mortality: a randomized clinical trial. Ann Intern Med 2005;142(4):233-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGarvey LP, John M, Anderson JA, et al. Ascertainment of cause-specific mortality in COPD: operations of the TORCH Clinical Endpoint Committee. Thorax 2007;62(5):411-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sidney S, Sorel M, Quesenberry CPJr, et al. COPD and incident cardiovascular disease hospitalizations and mortality: Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program. Chest 2005;128(4):2068-75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghoorah K, De Soyza A, Kunadian V. Increased cardiovascular risk in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and the potential mechanisms linking the two conditions: a review. Cardiol Rev 2013;21(4):196-202
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agarwal SK, Heiss G, Barr RG, et al. Airflow obstruction, lung function, and risk of incident heart failure: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Eur J Heart Fail 2012;14(4):414-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anthonisen NR, Connett JE, Enright PL, et al. Hospitalizations and mortality in the Lung Health Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;166(3):333-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bang KM, Gergen PJ, Kramer R, et al. The effect of pulmonary impairment on all-cause mortality in a national cohort. Chest 1993;103(2):536-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campo GG, Marzocchi A. Impact of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on long-term outcome after ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction receiving primary percutaneous coronary intervention. CHEST 2013. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.12-2313
   Google Scholar
• Hole DJ, Watt GC, Davey-Smith G, et al. Impaired lung function and mortality risk in men and women: findings from the Renfrew and Paisley prospective population study. BMJ 1996;313(7059):711-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sin DD, Man SF. Why are patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease at increased risk of cardiovascular diseases? The potential role of systemic inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Circulation 2003;107(11):1514-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iwamoto H, Yokoyama A, Kitahara Y, et al. Airflow limitation in smokers is associated with subclinical atherosclerosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009;179(1):35-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reed RM, Eberlein M, Girgis RE, et al. Coronary artery disease is under-diagnosed and under-treated in advanced lung disease. Am J Med 2012;125(12):1228 e13-22
   Google Scholar
• Rutten FH, Cramer MJ, Grobbee DE, et al. Unrecognized heart failure in elderly patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Heart J 2005;26(18):1887-94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shih HT, Webb CR, Conway WA, et al. Frequency and significance of cardiac arrhythmias in chronic obstructive lung disease. Chest 1988;94(1):44-8
   Google Scholar
• Mathew JP, Fontes ML, Tudor IC, et al. A multicenter risk index for atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgery. JAMA: the journal of the American Medical Association 2004;291(14):1720-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mapel DW, Dedrick D, Davis K. Trends and cardiovascular co-morbidities of COPD patients in the Veterans Administration Medical System. 1991-1999. Copd 2005;2(1):35-41
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Divo M, Cote C, de Torres JP, et al. Comorbidities and risk of mortality in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012;186(2):155-61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holguin F, Folch E, Redd SC, et al.Comorbidity and mortality in COPD-related hospitalizations in the United States, 1979 to 2001. Chest 2005;128(4):2005-11
   Google Scholar
• Ather S, Chan W, Bozkurt B, et al. Impact of noncardiac comorbidities on morbidity and mortality in a predominantly male population with heart failure and preserved versus reduced ejection fraction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012;59(11):998-1005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mascarenhas J, Lourenco P, Lopes R, et al. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in heart failure. Prevalence, therapeutic and prognostic implications. Am Heart J 2008;155(3):521-5
   Google Scholar
• Ryynanen OP, Soini EJ, Lindqvist A, et al. Bayesian predictors of very poor health related quality of life and mortality in patients with COPD. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak 2013;13:34
   Google Scholar
• Sin DD, Wu L, Man SF. The relationship between reduced lung function and cardiovascular mortality: a population-based study and a systematic review of the literature. Chest 2005;127(6):1952-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mannino DM, Thorn D, Swensen A, et al. Prevalence and outcomes of diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular disease in COPD. Eur Respir J 2008;32(4):962-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller J, Edwards LD, Agusti A, et al. Comorbidity, systemic inflammation and outcomes in the ECLIPSE cohort. Respir Med 2013;107(9):1376-84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finkelstein J, Cha E, Scharf SM. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis 2009;4:337-49
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van Manen JG, Bindels PJ, CJ IJ, et al. Prevalence of comorbidity in patients with a chronic airway obstruction and controls over the age of 40. J Clin Epidemiol 2001;54(3):287-93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mapel DW, Hurley JS, Frost FJ, et al. Health care utilization in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A case-control study in a health maintenance organization. Arch Intern Med 2000;160(17):2653-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soriano JB, Visick GT, Muellerova H, et al. Patterns of comorbidities in newly diagnosed COPD and asthma in primary care. Chest 2005;128(4):2099-107
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maclay JD, McAllister DA, Mills NL, et al. Vascular dysfunction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009;180(6):513-20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAllister DA, Maclay JD, Mills NL, et al. Arterial stiffness is independently associated with emphysema severity in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;176(12):1208-14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston AK, Mannino DM, Hagan GW, et al. Relationship between lung function impairment and incidence or recurrence of cardiovascular events in a middle-aged cohort. Thorax 2008;63(7):599-605
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engstrom G, Segelstorm N, Ekberg-Aronsson M, et al. Plasma markers of inflammation and incidence of hospitalisations for COPD: results from a population-based cohort study. Thorax 2009;64(3):211-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watz H, Waschki B, Meyer T, et al. Decreasing cardiac chamber sizes and associated heart dysfunction in COPD: role of hyperinflation. Chest 2010;138(1):32-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr RG, Bluemke DA, Ahmed FS, et al. Percent emphysema, airflow obstruction, and impaired left ventricular filling. N Engl J Med 2010;362(3):217-27
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grau M, Barr RG, Lima JA, et al. Percent emphysema and right ventricular structure and function: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis-Lung and Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis-Right Ventricle Studies. Chest 2013;144(1):136-44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutten FH, Cramer MJ, Lammers JW, et al. Heart failure and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: An ignored combination? Eur J Heart Fail 2006;8(7):706-11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatila WM, Thomashow BM, Minai OA, et al. Comorbidities in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2008;5(4):549-55
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bernhard D, Wang XL. Smoking, oxidative stress and cardiovascular diseases–do anti-oxidative therapies fail? Curr Med Chem 2007;14(16):1703-12
   Google Scholar
• Thabut G, Dauriat G, Stern JB, et al. Pulmonary hemodynamics in advanced COPD candidates for lung volume reduction surgery or lung transplantation. Chest 2005;127(5):1531-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almagro P, Barreiro B, Ochoa de Echaguen A, et al. Risk factors for hospital readmission in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Respiration 2006;73(3):311-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marti S, Munoz X, Rios J, et al. Body weight and comorbidity predict mortality in COPD patients treated with oxygen therapy. Eur Respir J 2006;27(4):689-96
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hilde JM, Skjorten I, Grotta OJ, et al. Right ventricular dysfunction and remodeling in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease without pulmonary hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013;62(12):1103-11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbera JA, Peinado VI, Santos S. Pulmonary hypertension in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 2003;21(5):892-905
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laurent S, Cockcroft J, Van Bortel L, et al. Expert consensus document on arterial stiffness: methodological issues and clinical applications. Eur Heart J 2006;27(21):2588-605
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ben-Shlomo Y, Spears M, Boustred C, et al. Aortic pulse wave velocity improves cardiovascular event prediction: an individual participant meta-analysis of prospective observational data from 17,635 subjects. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014;63(7):636-46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vlachopoulos C, Aznaouridis K, Stefanadis C. Prediction of cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality with arterial stiffness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010;55(13):1318-27
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabbri LM, Luppi F, Beghe B, et al. Complex chronic comorbidities of COPD. Eur Respir J 2008;31(1):204-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boudestein LC, Rutten FH, Cramer MJ, et al. The impact of concurrent heart failure on prognosis in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur J Heart Fail 2009;11(12):1182-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watz H, Waschki B, Boehme C, et al. Extrapulmonary effects of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on physical activity: a cross-sectional study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;177(7):743-51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia-Aymerich J, Lange P, Benet M, et al. Regular physical activity reduces hospital admission and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a population based cohort study. Thorax 2006;61(9):772-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stolz D, Breidthardt T, Christ-Crain M, et al. Use of B-type natriuretic peptide in the risk stratification of acute exacerbations of COPD. Chest 2008;133(5):1088-94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rusinaru D, Saaidi I, Godard S, et al. Impact of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on long-term outcome of patients hospitalized for heart failure. Am J Cardiol 2008;101(3):353-8
   Google Scholar
• Hawkins NM, Huang Z, Pieper KS, et al. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is an independent predictor of death but not atherosclerotic events in patients with myocardial infarction: analysis of the Valsartan in Acute Myocardial Infarction Trial (VALIANT). Eur J Heart Fail 2009;11(3):292-8
   Google Scholar
• Williams MC, Murchison JT, Edwards LD, et al. Coronary artery calcification is increased in patients with COPD and associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Thorax 2014;69(8):718-23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brook RD, Rajagopalan S. Particulate matter, air pollution, and blood pressure. J Am Society Hypertens JASH 2009;3(5):332-50
   Google Scholar
• Talukder MA, Johnson WM, Varadharaj S, et al. Chronic cigarette smoking causes hypertension, increased oxidative stress, impaired NO bioavailability, endothelial dysfunction, and cardiac remodeling in mice. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2011;300(1):H388-96
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAllister DA, Maclay JD, Mills NL, et al. Diagnosis of myocardial infarction following hospitalisation for exacerbation of COPD. Eur Respir J 2012;39(5):1097-103
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yanbaeva DG, Dentener MA, Creutzberg EC, et al. Systemic effects of smoking. Chest 2007;131(5):1557-66
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gan WQ, Man SF, Senthilselvan A, et al. Association between chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and systemic inflammation: a systematic review and a meta-analysis. Thorax 2004;59(7):574-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agusti AG, Noguera A, Sauleda J, et al. Systemic effects of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 2003;21(2):347-60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maclay JD, McAllister DA, Johnston S, et al. Increased platelet activation in patients with stable and acute exacerbation of COPD. Thorax 2011;66(9):769-74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donaldson GC, Seemungal TA, Patel IS, et al. Airway and systemic inflammation and decline in lung function in patients with COPD. Chest 2005;128(4):1995-2004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broekhuizen R, Wouters EF, Creutzberg EC, et al. Raised CRP levels mark metabolic and functional impairment in advanced COPD. Thorax 2006;61(1):17-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahl M, Vestbo J, Lange P, et al. C-reactive protein as a predictor of prognosis in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;175(3):250-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Groenewegen KH, Postma DS, Hop WC, et al. Increased systemic inflammation is a risk factor for COPD exacerbations. Chest 2008;133(2):350-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Torres JP, Pinto-Plata V, Casanova C, et al. C-reactive protein levels and survival in patients with moderate to very severe COPD. Chest 2008;133(6):1336-43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Man SF, Xing L, Connett JE, et al. Circulating fibronectin to C-reactive protein ratio and mortality: a biomarker in COPD? Eur Respir J 2008;32(6):1451-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walter RE, Wilk JB, Larson MG, et al. Systemic inflammation and COPD: the Framingham Heart Study. Chest 2008;133(1):19-25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Libby P, Ridker PM, Maseri A. Inflammation and atherosclerosis. Circulation 2002;105(9):1135-43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross R. Atherosclerosis–an inflammatory disease. N Engl J Med 1999;340(2):115-26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridker PM. Clinical application of C-reactive protein for cardiovascular disease detection and prevention. Circulation 2003;107(3):363-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mills NL, Miller JJ, Anand A, et al. Increased arterial stiffness in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a mechanism for increased cardiovascular risk. Thorax 2008;63(4):306-11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baykan AO, Gur M, Acele A, et al. Coronary Collateral Development and Arterial Stiffness in Patients with Chronic Coronary Total Occlusions. Scand Cardiovasc J 2015;14:1-24
   Google Scholar
• Shifren A, Mecham RP. The stumbling block in lung repair of emphysema: elastic fiber assembly. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2006;3(5):428-33
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maclay JD, McAllister DA, Rabinovich R, et al. Systemic elastin degradation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2012;67(7):606-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flammer AJ, Anderson T, Celermajer DS, et al. The assessment of endothelial function: from research into clinical practice. Circulation 2012;126(6):753-67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Gooch VM, et al. Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis. Lancet 1992;340(8828):1111-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eickhoff P, Valipour A, Kiss D, et al. Determinants of systemic vascular function in patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;178(12):1211-18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr RG, Mesia-Vela S, Austin JH, et al. Impaired flow-mediated dilation is associated with low pulmonary function and emphysema in ex-smokers: the Emphysema and Cancer Action Project (EMCAP) Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;176(12):1200-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dillin A, Gottschling DE, Nystrom T. The good and the bad of being connected: the integrons of aging. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2014;26:107-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Grey ADNJ. Life span extension research and public debate: societal considerations. Studies in Ethics, Law, and Technology. 2007
   Google Scholar
• Ito K, Mercado N. STOP accelerating lung aging for the treatment of COPD. Exp Gerontol 2014;59:21-7
   Google Scholar
• Patel BD, Loo WJ, Tasker AD, et al. Smoking related COPD and facial wrinkling: is there a common susceptibility? Thorax 2006;61(7):568-71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuro-o M, Matsumura Y, Aizawa H, et al. Mutation of the mouse klotho gene leads to a syndrome resembling ageing. Nature 1997;390(6655):45-51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Celli BR, MacNee W. Standards for the diagnosis and treatment of patients with COPD: a summary of the ATS/ERS position paper. Eur Respir J 2004;23(6):932-46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ito K, Barnes PJ. COPD as a disease of accelerated lung aging. Chest 2009;135(1):173-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morla M, Busquets X, Pons J, et al. Telomere shortening in smokers with and without COPD. Eur Respir J 2006;27(3):525-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savale L, Chaouat A, Bastuji-Garin S, et al. Shortened telomeres in circulating leukocytes of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009;179(7):566-71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsuji T, Aoshiba K, Nagai A. Alveolar cell senescence in patients with pulmonary emphysema. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;174(8):886-93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amsellem V, Gary-Bobo G, Marcos E, et al. Telomere dysfunction causes sustained inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;184(12):1358-66
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsuji T, Aoshiba K, Nagai A. Cigarette smoke induces senescence in alveolar epithelial cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2004;31(6):643-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsuji T, Aoshiba K, Nagai A. Alveolar cell senescence exacerbates pulmonary inflammation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Respiration 2010;80(1):59-70
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nyunoya T, Monick MM, Klingelhutz A, et al. Cigarette smoke induces cellular senescence. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2006;35(6):681-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosamond W, Flegal K, Furie K, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics–2008 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation 2008;117(4):e25-146
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folkow B, Svanborg A. Physiology of cardiovascular aging. Physiol Rev 1993;73(4):725-64
   Google Scholar
• Priebe HJ. The aged cardiovascular risk patient. Br J Anaesth 2000;85(5):763-78
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheitlin MD. Cardiovascular physiology-changes with aging. Am J Geriatr Cardiol 2003;12(1):9-13
   Google Scholar
• Vaitkevicius PV, Fleg JL, Engel JH, et al. Effects of age and aerobic capacity on arterial stiffness in healthy adults. Circulation 1993;88(4 Pt 1):1456-62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benetos A, Okuda K, Lajemi M, et al. Telomere length as an indicator of biological aging: the gender effect and relation with pulse pressure and pulse wave velocity. Hypertension 2001;37(2 Pt 2):381-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garber CE, Blissmer B, Deschenes MR, et al. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory, musculoskeletal, and neuromotor fitness in apparently healthy adults: guidance for prescribing exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2011;43(7):1334-59
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bravata DM, Smith-Spangler C, Sundaram V, et al. Using pedometers to increase physical activity and improve health: a systematic review. JAMA : the journal of the American Medical Association 2007;298(19):2296-304
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oga T, Nishimura K, Tsukino M, et al. Analysis of the factors related to mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: role of exercise capacity and health status. AmJRespirCrit Care Med 2003;167(4):544-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrato EH, Hill JO, Wyatt HR, et al. Physical activity in U.S. adults with diabetes and at risk for developing diabetes, 2003. Diabetes Care 2007;30(2):203-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savi D, Quattrucci S, Internullo M, et al. Measuring habitual physical activity in adults with cystic fibrosis. Respir Med 2013;107(12):1888-94
   Google Scholar
• Troosters T, Langer D, Vrijsen B, et al. Skeletal muscle weakness, exercise tolerance and physical activity in adults with cystic fibrosis. Eur Respir J 2009;33(1):99-106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia-Aymerich J, Lange P, Benet M, et al. Regular physical activity modifies smoking-related lung function decline and reduces risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a population-based cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;175(5):458-63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawley JA, Hargreaves M, Joyner MJ, et al. Integrative biology of exercise. Cell 2014;159(4):738-49
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spruit MA, Singh SJ, Garvey C, et al. An official American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society statement: key concepts and advances in pulmonary rehabilitation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2013;188(8):e13-64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotseva K, Wood D, De Bacquer D, et al. EUROASPIRE IV: A European Society of Cardiology survey on the lifestyle, risk factor and therapeutic management of coronary patients from 24 European countries. Eur J Prev Cardiol 2015; Epub ahead of print
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitta F, Troosters T, Spruit MA, et al. Characteristics of physical activities in daily life in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005;171(9):972-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yohannes AM, Baldwin RC, Connolly M. Mortality predictors in disabling chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in old age. Age Ageing 2002;31(2):137-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lattimore JD, Wilcox I, Nakhla S, et al. Repetitive hypoxia increases lipid loading in human macrophages-a potentially atherogenic effect. Atherosclerosis 2005;179(2):255-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ichikawa H, Flores S, Kvietys PR, et al. Molecular mechanisms of anoxia/reoxygenation-induced neutrophil adherence to cultured endothelial cells. Circ Res 1997;81(6):922-31
   Google Scholar
• Hartmann G, Tschop M, Fischer R, et al. High altitude increases circulating interleukin-6, interleukin-1 receptor antagonist and C-reactive protein. Cytokine 2000;12(3):246-52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savransky V, Nanayakkara A, Li J, et al. Chronic intermittent hypoxia induces atherosclerosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;175(12):1290-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen L, Einbinder E, Zhang Q, et al. Oxidative stress and left ventricular function with chronic intermittent hypoxia in rats. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005;172(7):915-20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomson AJ, Drummond GB, Waring WS, et al. Effects of short-term isocapnic hyperoxia and hypoxia on cardiovascular function. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2006:101(3):809-16
   Google Scholar
• Skwarski KM, Morrison D, Barratt A, et al. Effects of hypoxia on renal hormonal balance in normal subjects and in patients with COPD. Respir Med 1998;92(12):1331-6
   Google Scholar
• Heindl S, Lehnert M, Criee CP, et al. Marked sympathetic activation in patients with chronic respiratory failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;164(4):597-601
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtis BM, O’Keefe JHJr. Autonomic tone as a cardiovascular risk factor: the dangers of chronic fight or flight. Mayo Clin Proc 2002;77(1):45-54
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Giaid A, Saleh D. Reduced expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in the lungs of patients with pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med 1995;333(4):214-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minet C, Vivodtzev I, Tamisier R, et al. Reduced six-minute walking distance, high fat-free-mass index and hypercapnia are associated with endothelial dysfunction in COPD. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2012;183(2):128-34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cote C, Zilberberg MD, Mody SH, et al. Haemoglobin level and its clinical impact in a cohort of patients with COPD. Eur Respir J 2007;29(5):923-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber FP. The Prognostic Significance of Secondary Polycythaemia in Cardio-pulmonary Cases. Proc R Soc Med 1913;6(Med Sect):83-98
   Google Scholar
• Kent BD, Mitchell PD, McNicholas WT. Hypoxemia in patients with COPD: cause, effects, and disease progression. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis 2011;6:199-208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agusti A, Soriano JB. COPD as a systemic disease. COPD 2008;5(2):133-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Agusti A, Sobradillo P, Celli B. Addressing the complexity of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: from phenotypes and biomarkers to scale-free networks, systems biology, and P4 medicine. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;183(9):1129-37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campo G, Pavasini R, Malagu M, et al. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and ischemic heart disease comorbidity: overview of mechanisms and clinical management. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 2015;29(2):147-57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexopoulos D, Xanthopoulou I, Deftereos S, et al. Contraindications/special warnings and precautions for use of contemporary oral antiplatelet treatment in patients with acute coronary syndrome undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention. Circ J 2014;78(1):180-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison MT, Short P, Williamson PA, et al. Thrombocytosis is associated with increased short and long term mortality after exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a role for antiplatelet therapy? Thorax 2014;69(7):609-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolh P, Windecker S, Alfonso F, et al. 2014 ESC/EACTS Guidelines on myocardial revascularization: the Task Force on Myocardial Revascularization of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS). Developed with the special contribution of the European Association of Percutaneous Cardiovascular Interventions (EAPCI). Eur J Cardiothoracic Surg 2014;46(4):517-92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Gestel YR, Hoeks SE, Sin DD, et al. Impact of cardioselective beta-blockers on mortality in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and atherosclerosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;178(7):695-700
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dransfield MT, Rowe SM, Johnson JE, et al. Use of beta blockers and the risk of death in hospitalised patients with acute exacerbations of COPD. Thorax 2008;63(4):301-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutten FH, Zuithoff NP, Hak E, et al. Beta-blockers may reduce mortality and risk of exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Arch Intern Med 2010;170(10):880-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andell P, Koul S, Martinsson A, et al. Impact of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on morbidity and mortality after myocardial infarction. Open heart 2014;1(1):e000002
   Google Scholar
• Salisbury AC, Reid KJ, Spertus JA. Impact of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on post-myocardial infarction outcomes. Am J Cardiol 2007;99(5):636-41
   Google Scholar
• Salpeter S, Ormiston T, Salpeter E. Cardioselective beta-blockers for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005(4):CD003566
   Google Scholar
• Mainguy V, Girard D, Maltais F, et al. Effect of bisoprolol on respiratory function and exercise capacity in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Cardiol 2012;110(2):258-63
   Google Scholar
• Stefan MS, Rothberg MB, Priya A, et al. Association between beta-blocker therapy and outcomes in patients hospitalised with acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive lung disease with underlying ischaemic heart disease, heart failure or hypertension. Thorax 2012;67(11):977-84
   Google Scholar
• Global. Initiative for Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. 2013. Available from: http://wwwgoldcopdcom
   Google Scholar
• Mancini GB, Etminan M, Zhang B, et al. Reduction of morbidity and mortality by statins, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, and angiotensin receptor blockers in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. JAmCollCardiol 2006;47(12):2554-60
   Google Scholar
• Mortensen EM, Copeland LA, Pugh MJ, et al. Impact of statins and ACE inhibitors on mortality after COPD exacerbations. Respir Res 2009;10:45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Criner GJ, Connett JE, Aaron SD, et al. Simvastatin for the prevention of exacerbations in moderate-to-severe COPD. N Engl J Med 2014;370(23):2201-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen H, Sood A, Meek PM, et al. Rapid lung function decline in smokers is a risk factor for COPD and is attenuated by angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor use. Chest 2014;145(4):695-703
   Google Scholar
• Lofdahl CG, Postma DS, Pride NB, et al. Possible protection by inhaled budesonide against ischaemic cardiac events in mild COPD. Eur Respir J 2007;29(6):1115-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dransfield MT, Cockcroft JR, Townsend RR, et al. Effect of fluticasone propionate/salmeterol on arterial stiffness in patients with COPD. Respir Med 2011;105(9):1322-30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vivodtzev I, Minet C, Wuyam B, et al. Significant improvement in arterial stiffness after endurance training in patients with COPD. Chest 2010;137(3):585-92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickstein K, Cohen-Solal A, Filippatos G, et al. ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure 2008: the Task Force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure 2008 of the European Society of Cardiology. Developed in collaboration with the Heart Failure Association of the ESC (HFA) and endorsed by the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM). Eur J Heart Fail 2008;10(10):933-89
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Miguel Diez J, Chancafe Morgan J, Jimenez Garcia R. The association between COPD and heart failure risk: a review. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis 2013;8:305-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawkins NM, Jhund PS, Simpson CR, et al. Primary care burden and treatment of patients with heart failure and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Scotland. Eur J Heart Fail 2010;12(1):17-24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jabbour A, Macdonald PS, Keogh AM, et al. Differences between beta-blockers in patients with chronic heart failure and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomized crossover trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010;55(17):1780-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Mohammad A, Mant J. Republished technology and guidelines: the diagnosis and management of chronic heart failure: review following the publication of the NICE guidelines. Postgrad Med J 2011;87(1034):841-6
   Google Scholar
• Hawkins NM, MacDonald MR, Petrie MC, et al. Bisoprolol in patients with heart failure and moderate to severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Heart Fail 2009;11(7):684-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lainscak M, Podbregar M, Kovacic D, et al. Differences between bisoprolol and carvedilol in patients with chronic heart failure and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomized trial. Respir Med 2011;105(Suppl 1):S44-9
   Google Scholar
• Aronow WS. Treatment of heart failure in older persons. Dilemmas with coexisting conditions: diabetes mellitus, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and arthritis. Congest Heart Fail 2003;9(3):142-7
   Google Scholar
• McLaughlin VV, Archer SL, Badesch DB, et al. ACCF/AHA 2009 expert consensus document on pulmonary hypertension a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on Expert Consensus Documents and the American Heart Association developed in collaboration with the American College of Chest Physicians; American Thoracic Society, Inc.; and the Pulmonary Hypertension Association. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009;53(17):1573-619
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galie N, Torbicki A, Barst R, et al. Guidelines on diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension. The Task Force on Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J 2004;25(24):2243-78
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alp S, Skrygan M, Schmidt WE, et al. Sildenafil improves hemodynamic parameters in COPD–an investigation of six patients. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2006;19(6):386-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madden BP, Allenby M, Loke TK, et al. A potential role for sildenafil in the management of pulmonary hypertension in patients with parenchymal lung disease. Vasc Pharmacol 2006;44(5):372-6
   Google Scholar
• Maloney JP. Advances in the treatment of secondary pulmonary hypertension. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2003;9(2):139-43
   Google Scholar
• Barbera JA, Roger N, Roca J, et al. Worsening of pulmonary gas exchange with nitric oxide inhalation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Lancet 1996;347(8999):436-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones AT, Evans TW. NO: COPD and beyond. Thorax 1997;52(Suppl 3):S16-21
   Google Scholar
• Galie N, Hoeper MM, Humbert M, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary hypertension. Eur Respir J 2009;34(6):1219-63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atrial Fibrillation: The Management of Atrial Fibrillation. London 2014
   Google Scholar
• Senoo K, Lau YC, Lip GY. Updated NICE guideline: management of atrial fibrillation (2014). Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 2014;12(9):1037-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• January CT, Wann LS, Alpert JS, et al. 2014 AHA/ACC/HRS guideline for the management of patients with atrial fibrillation: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation 2014;130(23):2071-104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Go AS, Bauman MA, Coleman King SM, et al. An effective approach to high blood pressure control: a science advisory from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014;63(12):1230-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jaques H. NICE guideline on hypertension. Eur Heart J 2013;34(6):406-8
   Google Scholar