185
Views
7
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Pharmacotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder

, &
Pages 77-86 | Published online: 10 Jan 2014

References

  • Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th Edition) (DSM-IV). American Psychiatric Association, DC, USA 424–429 (1994).
  • Kessler RC, Sonnega A, Bromet E, Hughes M, Nelson CB. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry52, 1048–1060 (1995).
  • Yehuda R. Post-traumatic stress disorder. N. Engl. J. Med.346, 106–114 (2002).
  • Foa EB, Davidson JR, Frances A. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry60(Suppl. 16), 6–74 (1999).
  • van der Kolk BA. The psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry58, 16–24 (1997).
  • Pitman RK, Gilbertson MW, Gurvits TV et al. Clarifying the origin of biological abnormalities in PTSD through the study of identical twins discordant for combat exposure. Ann. NY Acad. Sci.1071, 242–254 (2006).
  • Australian Centre for Posttraumatic Mental Health. Australian Guidelines for the Treatment of Adults with Acute Stress Disorder and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. ACPMH, Melbourne, Australia (2007).
  • Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The Management of PTSD in Adults and Children in Primary and Secondary Care. National Institute for Clinical Excellence, London, UK (2005).
  • Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Acute Stress Disorder and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. American Psychiatric Association, DC, USA (2004).
  • Baldwin DS, Polkinghorn C. Evidence-based pharmacotherapy of generalized anxiety disorder. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol.8, 293–302 (2005).
  • Cahill SP, Foa EB, Rothbaum BO et al. Augmentation of sertraline with prolonged exposure (PE) in the treatment of PTSD: does PE protect against relapse? Presented at: The Annual Convention of the Anxiety Disorders Association of America. Toronto, ON, Canada 27–30 March, 2003 (Poster).
  • Boscarino JA. Diseases among men 20 years after exposure to severe stress: implications for clinical research and medical care. Psychosom. Med.59, 605–614 (1997).
  • Solomon SD, Davidson JRT. Trauma: prevalence, impairment, service use, and cost. J. Clin. Psychiatry58(Suppl. 9), 5–11 (1997).
  • Strand LM, Morley PC, Cipolle RJ, Ramsey R, Lamsam GD. Drug-related problems: their structure and function. DICP24, 1093–1097 (1990).
  • Nemeroff CB, DeVane CL, Pollock BG. Newer antidepressants and the cytochrome P450 system. Am. J. Psychiatry153, 311–320 (1996).
  • Hogben GL, Cornfield RB. Treatment of traumatic war neurosis with phenelzine. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry38, 440–445 (1981).
  • Levenson H, Lanman R, Rankin M. Traumatic ward neurosis and phenelzine. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry39, 1345 (1982).
  • Davidson J, Walker JI, Kilts C. A pilot study of phenelzine in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry150, 252–255 (1987).
  • Lere B, Bleich A, Kotler M, Garb R, Hertzberg M, Levin B. Posttraumatic stress disorder in Israeli combat veterans. Effect of phenelzine treatment. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry44, 976–981 (1987).
  • Kosten TR, Frank JB, Dan E, McDougle CJ, Giller EL. Pharmacotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder using phenelzine or imipramine. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis.179, 366–370 (1991).
  • Falcon S, Ryan C, Chamberlain K, Curtis G. Tricyclics: possible treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry46, 385–388 (1985).
  • Reist C, Kauffmann CD, Haier RJ, Sangdahl C, DeMet EM, Chicz-DeMet A et al. A controlled trial of desipramine in 18 men with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry146, 513–516 (1989).
  • Davidson J, Kudler H, Smith R et al. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with amitriptyline and placebo. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry47, 259–266 (1990).
  • Davidson JR, Kudler HS, Saunders WB et al. Predicting response to amitriptyline in posttraumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry150, 1024–1029 (1993).
  • Blake DJ. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with tricyclic antidepressants. South Med. J.79, 201–204 (1986).
  • den Boer M, Op der Belde W, Falger RJ, Hoveas JE, deFroen JH, van Duijn H. Fluvoxamine treatment for chronic PTSD. Psychother. Psychosomat.57, 158–163 (1991).
  • McDougle CJ, Southwick SM, Charney DS, James St RL. An open trial of fluoxetine in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.11, 325–327 (1991).
  • Shay J. Fluoxetine reduces explosiveness and elevates mood of Vietnam combat veterans with PTSD. J. Trauma Stress5, 97–101 (1992).
  • Nagy LM, Morgan CA, Southwick SM, Charney DS. Open prospective trial of fluoxetine for posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.13, 107–113 (1993).
  • March JS. Fluoxetine and fluvoxamine in PTSD. Am. J. Psychiatry149, 413 (1992).
  • van der Kolk BA, Dreyfuss D, Michaels M et al. Fluoxetine in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry55, 517–522 (1994).
  • Kline NA, Dow BM, Brown SA, Matloff JL. Sertraline efficacy in depressed combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry151, 621 (1994).
  • Fichtner CG, Arora RC, O’Connor FL, Crayton JW. Platelet paroxetine binding and fluoxetine pharmacotherapy in posttraumatic stress disorder: preliminary observations on a possible predictor of clinical treatment response. Life Sciences54, PL39–PL44 (1994).
  • Stein DJ, Ipser JC, Seedat S. Pharmacotherapy for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database of Syst. Rev. (1), CD002795 (2006).
  • Davidson JR. Pharmacological treatment of acute and chronic stress following trauma. J. Clin. Psychiatry67(Suppl. 2), 34–39 (2006).
  • Rothbaum BO, Ninan PT, Thomas L. Sertraline in the treatment of rape victims with posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Trauma Stress9, 865–871 (1996).
  • Brady K, Pearlstein T, Asnis GM et al. Efficacy and safety of sertraline treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA283, 1837–1844 (2000).
  • Davidson JR, Rothbaum BO, van der Kolk BA, Sikes CR, Farfel GM. Multicentre, double blind comparison of sertraline and placebo in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry58, 485–492 (2001).
  • Brady K, Sonne S, Anton RF, Randall CI, Back SE, Simpson K. Sertraline in the treatment of co-occurring alcohol dependence and posttraumatic stress disorder. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res.29, 395–401 (2005).
  • Zohar J, Amital D, Miodownik C et al. Double-blind placebo-controlled pilot study of sertraline in military veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.22, 190–195 (2002).
  • Stein DJ, van der Kolk BA, Austin C, Fayyad R, Clary C. Efficacy of sertraline in posttraumatic stress disorder secondary to interpersonal trauma or childhood abuse. Ann. Clin. Psychiatry18, 243–249 (2006).
  • Connor KM, Sutherland SM, Tupler LA, Malik ML, Davidson JR. Fluoxetine in post-traumatic stress disorder. Randomised, double-blind study. Br. J. Psychiatry175, 17–22 (1999).
  • Martenyi F, Brown EB, Zhang H, Koke SC, Prakash A. Fluoxetine v. placebo in prevention of relapse in post-traumatic stress disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry181, 315–320 (2002).
  • Martenyi F, Soldatenkova V. Fluoxetine in the acute treatment and relapse prevention of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: analysis of the veteran group of a placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol.16, 340–349 (2006).
  • Marmar CR, Schoenfeld F, Weiss DS et al. Open trial of fluvoxamine treatment for combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry57(Suppl. 8) 66–70 (1996).
  • Marshall RD, Schneier FR, Fallon BA et al. An open trial of paroxetine in patients with noncombat-related, chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.18, 10–18 (1998).
  • Tucker P, Zaninelli R, Yehuda R, Ruggiero L, Dillingham K, Pitts CD. Paroxetine in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: results of a placebo-controlled, flexible-dosage trial. J. Clin. Psychiatry62, 860–868 (2001).
  • Marshall RD, Beebe KL, Oldham M, Zaninelli R. Efficacy and safety of paroxetine treatment for chronic PTSD: a fixed-dose, placebo-controlled study. Am. J. Psychiatry158, 1982–1988 (2001).
  • Marshall RD, Lewis-Fernandez R, Blanco C et al. A controlled trial of paroxetine for chronic PTSD, dissociation, and interpersonal problems in mostly minority adults. Depress. Anxiety24, 77–84 (2007).
  • Seedat S, Stein DJ, Emsley RA. Open trial of citalopram in adults with post-traumatic stress disorder. Int. J. Neuropsychpharmacol.3, 135–140 (2000).
  • Robert S, Hamner MB, Ulmer HG, Lorberbaum JP, Durkalski VL. Open-label trial of escitalopram in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry2067, 1522–1526 (2006).
  • Tucker P, Ruwe WD, Masters B et al. Neuroimmune and cortisol changes in selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor and placebo treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry56, 121–128 (2004).
  • Hertzberg MA, Feldman ME, Beckham JC, Kudler HS, Davidson JR. Lack of efficacy for fluoxetine in PTSD: a placebo controlled trial in combat veterans. Ann. Clin. Psychiatry12, 101–105 (2000).
  • Martenyi F, Brown EB, Caldwell CD. Failed efficacy of fluoxetine in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: results of a fixed-dose, placebo-controlled study. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.27, 166–170 (2007).
  • Davidson J, Baldwin D, Stein DJ et al. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with venlafaxine extended release: a 6-month randomized controlled trial. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry63, 1158–1165 (2006).
  • Davidson J, Rothbaum BO, Tucker P, Asnis G, Benattia I, Musgnung JJ. Venlafaxine extended release in posttraumatic stress disorder: a sertraline- and placebo-controlled study. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.26, 259–267 (2006).
  • Neal LA, Shapland W, Fox C. An open trial of moclobemide in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Into Clin. Psychopharmacol.12, 231–237 (1997).
  • Onder E, Tural U, Aker T. A comparative study of fluoxetine, moclobemide, and tianeptine in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder following an earthquake. Eur. Psychiatry21, 174–179 (2006).
  • Becker ME, Hertzberg MA, Moore SD, Dennis MF, Bukenya DS, Beckham JC. A placebo-controlled trial of bupropion SR in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.27, 193–197 (2007).
  • Spivak B, Strous RD, Shaked G, Shabash E, Kotler M, Weizman A. Reboxetine versus fluvoxamine in the treatment of motor vehicle accident-related posttraumatic stress disorder: a double-blind, fixed-dosage, controlled trial. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.26, 152–156 (2006).
  • Connor KM, Davidson JRT, Weisler RH, Ahearn E. A pilot study of mirtazapine in post-traumatic stress disorder. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol.14, 29–31 (1999).
  • Bahk W-M, Pae C-U, Tsoh J et al. A Effects of mirtazapine in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder in Korea: a pilot study. Hum. Psychopharmacol.17, 341–344 (2002).
  • Kim W, Pae C-U, Chae J-H, Jun T-Y, Bahk W-M. The effectiveness of mirtazapine in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: a 24 week continuation therapy. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci.59, 743–747 (2005).
  • Davidson JR, Weisler RH, Butterfield MI et al. Mirtazapine vs placebo in posttraumatic stress disorder: a pilot trial. Biol. Psychiatry53, 188–191 (2003).
  • Lewis JD. Mirtazapine for PTSD nightmares. Am. J. Psychiatry159, 1948–1949 (2002).
  • Chung MY, Min KH, Kim SS, Kim WC, Jun EM. Efficacy and tolerability of mirtazapine and sertraline in Korean veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized open label trial. Hum. Psychopharmacol.19, 489–494 (2004).
  • Brunello N, Davidson JRT, Deahl M et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder: diagnosis and epidemiology, comorbidity and social consequences, biology and treatment. Neuropsychobiology43, 150–162 (2001).
  • Londborg PD, Hegel MT, Goldstein S et al. Sertraline treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: results of 24 weeks of open-label continuation treatment. J. Clin. Psychiatry62, 325–331 (2001).
  • Ciccone PE, Amzarek A, Weisbrot M, Greenstein RA, Olsem K, Zimmerman J. Pharmacotherapy for PTSD. Am. J. Psychiatry145, 1484–1485 (1988).
  • Dieperink M, Erbes C, Leskela J et al. Comparison of treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder amongst three department of Veterans Affairs medical centers. Milit. Med.170, 305–308 (2005).
  • Hamner MB, Robert S. Emerging roles for the atypical antipsychotics in chronic post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Rev. Neurotherapeutics5, 267–275 (2005).
  • Baldwin DS, Anderson IM, Nutt DJ, Bandelow B, Bond A, Davidson JRT. Evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological management of anxiety disorders: recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J. Psychpharmacol.19, 567–596 (2005).
  • Ursano RJ, Bell C, Eth S et al. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry161(11 Suppl.), 3–31 (2004).
  • Foa EB, Davidson JRT, Frances A. The Expert Consensus Guideline Series: Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry60(Suppl. 16), 3–76 (1999).
  • Seedat S, Stein MB, Oosthuizen PP, Emsley RA, Stein DJ. Linking posttraumatic stress disorder and psychosis: a look at epidemiology, phenomenology and treatment. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis.191, 675–681 (2003).
  • Ahearn EP, Krohn A, Connor KM, Davidosn JRT. Pharmacologic treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: a focus on antipsychotic use. Ann. Clin. Pyschiatry15, 193–201 (2003).
  • Kozari-Kovaci D, Pivac N, Muck-Seler D, Rothbaum BO. Risperidone in psychotic combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: an open trial. J. Clin. Psychiatry66, 922–927 (2005).
  • Bartzokis G, Lu PH, Turner J, Mintz J, Saunders CS. Adjunctive risperidone in the treatment of combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry57, 474–479 (2005).
  • Reich DB, Winternitz S, Hennen J, Watts T, Stanculescu C. A preliminary study of risperidone in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood abuse in women. J. Clin. Psychiatry65, 1601–1606 (2004).
  • Monelly EP, Ciraulo DA, Knapp C, Keane T. Low-dose risperidone as adjunctive therapy for irritable aggression in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.23, 193–196 (2003).
  • Petty F, Brannan S, Casada J et al. Olanzapine treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder: an open-label study. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol.16, 331–337 (2001).
  • Pivac N, Kozaric-Kovacic D, Muck-Seler D. Olanzapine versus fluphenazine in an open trial in patients with psychotic combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacology175, 451–456 (2004).
  • Hamner MB, Dietsch SE, Brodrick PS, Ulmer HG, Lorberbaum JP. Quetiapine treatment in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder: an open trail of adjunctive therapy. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.23, 15–20 (2003).
  • Kozaric-Kovacic D, Pivac N. Quetiapine treatment in an open trial in combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder with psychotic features. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol.10, 253–261 (2007).
  • Lipper S, Davidson JR, Grady TA, Edinger JD, Hammett EB, Mahorney SL. Preliminary study of carbamazepine in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychosomatics27, 849–854 (1986).
  • Wolf ME, Alavi A, Mosnaim AD. Posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans clinical and EEG findings: possible therapeutic effects of carbamazepine. Biol. Psychiatry23, 642–646 (1988).
  • Fesler FA. Valproate in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry52, 361–364 (1991).
  • Clark RD, Canive JM, Calais LA, Qualls C, Tuason VB. Divalproex in post-traumatic stress disorder: an open-label clinical trial. J. Trauma Stress12, 395–401 (1999).
  • Hertzberg MA, Butterfield MI, Feldman ME et al. A preliminary study of lamotrigine for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry45, 1226–1229 (1999).
  • Hamner MB, Brodrick PS, Labbate LA. Gabapentin in PTSD: a retrospective, clinical series of adjunctive therapy. Ann. Clin. Psychiatry13, 141–146 (2001).
  • Taylor FB. Tiagabine for posttraumatic stress disorder: a case series of 7 women. J. Clin. Psychiatry64, 1421–1425 (2003).
  • Connor KM, Davidson JR, Weisler RH, Zhang W, Abraham K. Tiagabine for posttraumatic stress disorder: effects of open-label and double-blind discontinuation treatment. Psychopharmacology184, 21–25 (2006).
  • Davidson JR, Brady K, Mellman TA, Stein MB, Pollack MH. The efficacy and tolerability of tiagabine in adult patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.27, 85–88 (2007).
  • Berlant J, van Kammen DP. Open-label topiramate as primary or adjunctive therapy in chronic civilian posttraumatic stress disorder: a preliminary report. J. Clin. Psychiatry63(1), 15–20 (2002).
  • Berlant JL. Topiramate in posttraumatic stress disorder: preliminary clinical observations. J. Clin. Psychiatry62(Suppl. 17), 60–63 (2001).
  • Berlant JL. Prospective open-label study of add-on and monotherapy topiramate in civilians with chronic nonhallucinatory posttraumatic stress disorder. BMC Psychiatry18(4), 24 (2004).
  • Tucker P, Trautman RP, Wyatt DB et al. Efficacy and safety of topiramate monotherapy in civilian posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J. Clin. Psychiatry68(2), 201–206 (2007).
  • Akuchekian S, Amanat S. The Comparison of topiramate and placebo in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized, double-blind study. J. Res. Med. Sci.9(5), 240–244 (2004).
  • Johnson BA, Rosenthal N, Capece JA et al. Topiramate for treating alcohol dependence: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA298(14), 1641–1651 (2007).
  • Braun P, Greenberg D, Dasberg H, Lerer B. Core symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder unimproved by alprazolam treatment. J. Clin. Psychiatry51, 236–238 (1990).
  • Cates ME, Bishop MH, Davis LL, Lowe JS, Wooley TW. Clonazepam for treatment of sleep disturbances associated with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Ann. Pharmacother.38, 1395–1399 (2004).
  • Gelpin E, Bonne O, Peri T, Brandes D, Shalev AY. Treatment of recent trauma survivors with benzodiazepines: a prospective study. J. Clin. Psychiatry57, 390–394 (1996).
  • Jacobsen LK, Southwick SM, Kosten TR. Substance use disorders in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder: a review of the literature. Am. J. Psychiatry158, 1184–1190 (2001).
  • Kosten TR, Fontana A, Sernyak MJ, Rosenheck R. Benzodiazepine use in posttraumatic stress disorder among veterans with substance abuse. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis.188, 454–459 (2000).
  • Ballenger JC, Davidson JR, Lecrubier Y et al. Consensus statement update on posttraumatic stress disorder from the international consensus group on depression and anxiety. J. Clin. Psychiatry65(Suppl. 1), 55–62 (2004).
  • Alderman CP, Gilbert AL, Condon JT. Characteristics of tranquilizer use among Australian Vietnam war veterans. Ann. Pharmacother.34, 1243–1248 (2000).
  • Hajak G, Muller WE, Wittchen HU, Pittrow D, Kirch W. Abuse and dependence potential for the non-benzodiazepine hypnotics zolpidem and zopiclone: a review of case reports and epidemiological data. Addiction98, 1371–1378 (2003).
  • Bianchi M, Musch B. Zopiclone discontinuation: review of 25 studies assessing withdrawal and rebound phenomena. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol.5, 139–145 (1990).
  • Southwick SM, Bremmer JD, Rasmusson A, Morgan CA, Amsten A, Charney DS. Role of norepinephrine in the pathophysiology and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry46, 1192–1204 (1999).
  • Coupland NJ. Brain mechanisms and neurotransmitters. In: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder – Diagnosis, Management and Treatment. Nutt DM, Davidson JR, Zohar J (Eds). Martin Duniz, London, UK, 69–100 (2000).
  • Raskind MA, Dobie DJ, Kanter ED, Petrie EC, Thompson CE, Peskind ER. The α1-adrenergic antagonist prazosin ameliorates combat trauma nightmares in veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder: a report of four cases. J. Clin. Psychiatry61, 129–133 (2000).
  • Raskind MA, Peskind ER, Kanter ED et al. Reduction of nightmares and other PTSD symptoms in combat veterans by prazosin: a placebo-controlled study. Am. J. Psychiatry160, 371–373 (2003).
  • Brkanac Z, Pastor JF, Storck M. Prazosin in PTSD. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry42, 384–385 (2003).
  • Boehnlein JK, Kinzie JD. Pharmacological reduction of CNS noradrenergic activity in PTSD: the case for clonidine and prazosin. J. Psychiatr. Pract.13, 72–78 (2007).
  • Peskind ER, Bonner LT, Hoff DJ, Raskind MA. Prazosin reduces trauma-related nightmares in older men with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry Neurol.16, 165–171 (2003).
  • Raskind MA, Thompson C, Petrie EC et al. Prazosin reduces nightmares in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry63, 565–568 (2002).
  • Taylor F, Raskind MA. The α1-adrenergic antagonist prazosin improves sleep and nightmares in civilian trauma posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.22, 82–85 (2002).
  • Kinzie JD, Leung P. Clonidine in Cambodian patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis.177, 546–550 (1989).
  • Taylor F, Cahill L. Propranolol for reemergent posttraumatic stress disorder following an event of retraumatization: a case study. J. Trauma Stress15, 433–437 (2002).
  • Swartz CM. Betaxolol in anxiety disorders. Ann. Clin. Psychiatry10, 9–14 (1998).
  • Pitman RK, Sanders KM, Zusman RM et al. Pilot study of sencondary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder with propranolol. Biol. Psychiatry51, 189–192 (2002).
  • Vaiva G, Ducrocq F, Jezequel K et al. Immediate treatment with propranolol decreases posttraumatic stress disorder two months after trauma. Biol. Psychiatry54, 947–949 (2003).
  • Stein MB, Kerridge C, Dimsdale JE, Hoyt DB. Pharmacotherapy to prevent PTSD: results from a randomized controlled proof-of-concept trial in physically injured patients. J. Trauma Stress20, 923–932 (2007).
  • Friedman MJ. Future pharmacotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: prevention and treatment. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am.25, 427–441 (2002).
  • Schelling G, Stoll C, Kapfhammer HP et al. The effect of stress doses of hydrocortisone during septic shock on posttraumatic stress disorder and health-related quality of life in survivors. Crit. Care Med.27, 2678–2683 (1999).
  • Schelling G, Briegel J, Roozendaal B, Stoll C, Rothenhäusler HB, Kapfhammer HP. The effect of stress doses of hydrocortisone during septic shock on posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors. Biol. Psychiatry50, 978–985 (2001).
  • Schelling G, Kilger E, Roozendaal B et al. Stress doses of hydrocortisone, traumatic memories, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in patients after cardiac surgery: a randomized study. Biol. Psychiatry55, 627–633 (2004).
  • Aerni A, Traber R, Hock C et al. Low-dose cortisol for symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry161, 1488–1490 (2004).

Website

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.