Treating acne vulgaris: systemic, local and combination therapy

References

• Cunliffe WJ, Gollnick H. Acne: Diagnosis and Management. Marks R (Ed.). Martin Dunitz Ltd., London, UK 121 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Cook CH, Centner RL, Michaels SE. An acne grading method using photographic standards. Arch. Dermatol.115, 571–575 (1979).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pillsbury DM, Shelley WB, Kligman AM. A Manual of Cutaneous Medicine. Saunders, PA, USA 173 (1961).
   Google Scholar
• Finlay AY, Khan GK. Dermatology life quality index (DLQI). A simple practical measure for routine clinical use. Clin. Exp. Dermatol.19, 210–216 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Layton AM, Seukeran DC, Cunliffe WJ. Scarred for life. Dermatology195, 15–21 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Motley RJ, Finlay AY. Practical use of a disability index in the routine management of acne. Clin. Exp. Dermatol.17, 1–3 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jowett S, Ryan T. Skin disease and handicap: an analysis of the impact of skin conditions. Soc. Sci. Med.20, 425–429 (1985).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta MA, Gupta AK. Depression and suicidal ideation in dermatology patients with acne, alopecia areata, atopic dermatitis and psoriasis. Br. J. Dermatol.139, 846–850 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kellet SC, Gawkrodger DJ. The psychological and emotional impact of acne and the effect of treatment with isotretinoin. Br. J. Dermatol.140, 273–282 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lasek RJ, Chren MM. Acne vulgaris and the quality of life of adult dermatology patients. Arch. Dermatol.134, 454–458 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cotterill JA, Cunliffe WJ. Suicide in dermatological patients. Br. J. Dermatol.137(2), 246–250 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thiboutot D, Dreno B, Layton A. Acne counseling to improve adherence. Cutis81(1), 81–86 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gollnick H, Cunliffe W, Berson D et al. Global Alliance to improve outcomes in acne. Management of acne: a report from a Global Alliance to improve outcomes in acne. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.49(1), S1–S37 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thiboutot D, Gollnick H, Bettoli V et al. New insights into the management of acne: an update from the Global Alliance to Improve Outcomes in Acne Group. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.60(5), S1–S50 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Layton AM. Disorders of the sebaceous glands. In: Rook’s Textbook of Dermatology (8th Edition). Burns DA, Breathnach SM, Cox NH et al. (Eds). Blackwell Publishing, London, UK (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Dreno B, Bettoli V, Ochsendorf F et al. An expert view on the treatment of acne with systemic antibiotics and/or oral isotretinoin in the light of the new European recommendations. Eur. J. Dermatol.15, 565–571 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Caron D, Sorba V, Kerrouche N et al. A split-face comparison of adapalene 0.1% gel and tretinoin gel 0.025% gel in acne patients. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.36, S110–S112 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalita A, Weiss JS, Chalker DK et al. A comparison of the efficacy and safety of adapalene gel 0.1% and tretinoin gel 0.025% in the treatment of acne vulgaris: a multicentre trial. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.34, 482–485 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ioannides D, Rigopoulos D, Katsambas A. Topical adapalene gel 0.1% vs isotretinoin gel 0.05% in the treatment of acne vulgaris: a randomised open-label clinical trial. Br. J. Dermatol.147, 523–527 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christophers E, Wolfe HH. Effect of vitamin A acid on skin: in vivo and in vitro studies. Acta Derm. Venereol.74, 42–53 (1975).
   Google Scholar
• Leyden JJ. Rational therapy for acne vulgaris: an update on topical treatment. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.15, 907–915 (1986).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouclier M, Chatelus A, Ferracin J et al. Quantification of epidermal histological changes induced by topical retinoids and CD271 in the rhino mouse model using a standardized image analysis technique. Skin Pharmacol.4, 65–73 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cunliffe WJ, Poncet M, Loesche C et al. A comparison of the efficacy and tolerability of adapalene 0.1% gel versus tretinoin 0.025% gel in patients with acne vulgaris. A meta-analysis of five randomised trials. Br. J. Dermatol.139(Suppl. 52), 48–56 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schefer H. Penetration and percutaneous absorption of topical retinoids. A review. Skin Pharmacol.6, 17–23 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bojar RA, Cunliffe WJ, Holland KT. The short-term treatment of acne vulgaris with benzyl peroxide: effects on the surface and follicular cutaneous microflora. Br. J. Dermatol.132, 204–208 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haider A, Shaw JC. Treatment of acne vulgaris. JAMA292, 726–735 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fulton JE, Farzad-Batshandeth A. Studies on the mechanism of action of topical benzyl peroxide in acne vulgaris. J. Cutan. Pathol.1, 194–200 (1974).
   Google Scholar
• Goldstein JA, Pochi PE. Failure of benzoyl peroxide to decrease sebaceous gland secretion in acne. Dermatologica162, 287–291 (1981).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tucker SB, Tausend R, Cochran R et al. Comparison of topical clindamycin phosphate, benzyl peroxide and a combination of the two for treatment in acne vulgaris. Br. J. Dermatol.110, 487–492 (1984).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Swinyer LJS, Barker MD, Swinyer TA et al. A comparative study of benzoyl peroxide and clindamycin phosphate for treating acne vulgaris. Br. J. Dermatol.119, 615–622 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Lookingbill DP, Chalker DK, Lind Holm JS et al. Treatment of acne with a combination clindamycin/benzoyl peroxide and vehicle gel; combined with results of two double blind investigations. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.37, 590–595 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozolins M, Eady EA, Avery A et al. A cost-effectiveness rationale for the selection of anti-microbial therapy in acne: a randomized controlled trial. Br. J. Dermatol.147, 13–18 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Handojo I. The combined use of topical benzoyl peroxide and tretinoin in the treatment of acne vulgaris. Int. J. Dermatol.18, 489–496 (1979).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mills OH, Kligman AM, Pochi P et al. Comparing 2.5%, 5% and 10% benzoyl peroxide on inflammatory acne vulgaris. Int. J. Dermatol.25, 664–667 (1986).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yong CC. Benzoyl peroxide gel therapy in acne in Singapore. Int. J. Dermatol.18, 485–488 (1979).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marsden J. Evidence that the method of use, dose and duration of treatment with benzoyl peroxide and tetracycline determines response of acne. J. R. Soc. Med.78(Suppl. 10), 25–28 (1985).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thiboutot DM, Weis J, Bucko A et al. Adapalene-benzoyl peroxide, a fixed-dose combination for the treatment of acne vulgaris: results of a multicenter, randomized double-blind, controlled study. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.57, 791–799 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunliffe WJ. The clinical efficacy of azelaic acid in the treatment of acne. Rev. Contemp. Pharmacother.4, 433–439 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Cunliffe WJ. Azelaic acid – review of its role in acne. J. Dermatol. Treat.4(Suppl. 1), S12–S18 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Silva A, Gollnick H, Detmar M et al. Effects of azelaic acid on sebaceous gland, sebum excretion rate and keratinisation pattern in human skin. Acta Derm. Venereol.143, 20–30 (1989).
   Google Scholar
• Kurokawa I, Akamatsu H, Nishijima S et al. Clinical and bacteriologic evaluation of OP-7251 in patients with acne; a double-blind group comparison study versus cream base. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.25, 674–681 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holland KT, Bojar RA. Antimicrobial effects of azelaic acid. J. Dermatol. Treat.4, S8–S11 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Leeming JP, Holland KT, Bojar RA. The in vitro antimicrobial effect of azelaic acid. Br. J. Dermatol.15, 551–556 (1986).
   Google Scholar
• Bernstein JE, Shalita AR. Effects of topical erythromycin on aerobic and anaerobic surface flora. Acta Derm. Venereol.60, 537–538 (1980).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Basak PY, Gultekin F, Kilinc I et al. The effect of benzoyl peroxide and benzoyl peroxide/erythromycin combination on the anti-oxidative defence system in papulo pustular acne. Eur. J. Dermatol.12, 53–57 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leyden JJ. Therapy for acne vulgaris. N. Engl. J. Med.336, 1156–1162 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strauss JS, Stranieri AM. Acne treatment with topical erythromycin and zinc; effect of Propionibacterium acnes and free fatty acid composition. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.11, 86–89 (1984).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson TA, Olson WH, Leach AD. A single blind, randomised comparison of erythromycin pledgets and clindamycin lotion in the treatment of mild to moderate facial acne vulgaris. Adv. Ther.12, 172–177 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Leyden JJ, Shalita AR, Saatjian GD et al. Erythromycin 2% gel in comparison with clindamycin phosphate 1% solution in acne vulgaris. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.16, 822–827 (1987).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Padilla RS, McCabe JM, Becker LE. Topical tetracycline hydrochloride vs topical clindamycin phosphate in the treatment of acne; a comparative study. Int. J. Dermatol.20, 445–448 (1981).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robledo AA, Lopez BE, del Pino GJ et al. Multicentric comparative study of the efficacy and tolerance of clindamycin phosphate 1% topical solution and tetracycline topical solution for the treatment of acne vulgaris. Curr. Ther. Res. Clin. Exp.43, 23–26 (1988).
   Google Scholar
• Eady EA, Cope JH, Jones DN et al. Topical antibiotics for the treatment of acne: a critical evaluation of the literature on their clinical benefit and comparative efficacy. J. Dermatol. Treat.1, 215–226 (1990).
   Google Scholar
• Feucht CL, Allen BS, Chalker DS et al. Topical erythromycin with zinc in acne. A double-blind controlled study. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.3, 483–491 (1980).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bojar RA, Eady EA, Jones CE et al. Inhibition of erythromycin-resistant propionibacteria on the skin of acne patients by topical erythromycin with and without zinc. Br. J. Dermatol.18, 410–413 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Leyden J, Kaidbey K, Levy SF. The combination formulation of clindamycin 1% plus benzyl peroxide 5% vs three different formulations of topical clindamycin alone in the reduction of Propionibacterium acnes. An in-vivo comparative study. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol.2, 263–266 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Habbema L, Koopmans B, Menke HE et al. A 4% erythromycin and zinc combination (Zineryt®) versus 2% erythromycin (Eryderm®) in acne vulgaris: a randomised, double-blind comparative study. Br. J. Dermatol.121, 497–502 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schactner L, Pestana A, Kittles C. A clinical trial comparing the safety and efficacy of a topical erythromycin-zinc formulation with a topical clindamycin formulation. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.22, 252–260 (1990).
   Google Scholar
• Mills O Jr, Thornsberry C, Cardin CW et al. Bacterial resistance and therapeutic outcome following three months of topical acne therapy with 2% erythromycin gel versus its vehicle. Acta Derm. Venereol.82, 260–265 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eady EA, Cove JH, Holland KT et al. Erythromycin resistant propionibacteria in antibiotic treated acne patients: association with therapeutic failure. Br. J. Dermatol.121, 51–57 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leyden JJ, McGinley KJ, Cavalieri S et al.Propionibacterium acnes resistance to antibiotics in acne patients. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.8, 41–45 (1983).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eady EA, Ingham E, Walters CE et al. Modulation of comedonal levels of interleukin-1 in acne patients treated with tetracyclines. J. Invest. Dermatol.101, 86–91 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Griffiths CEM. Nicotinamide 4% gel for the treatment of inflammatory acne vulgaris. J. Dermatol. Treat.6(Suppl. 1), 8–10 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Shalita AR, Smith JG, Parish LC et al. A double-blind comparison of topical nicotinamide with clindamycin gel for the treatment of inflammatory acne vulgaris. Int. J. Dermatol.34, 34–37 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Verschoore M, Langner A, Wolska H et al. Efficacy and safety of CD271 alcoholic gels in the topical treatment of acne vulgaris. Br. J. Dermatol.124, 368–371 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bernstein JE, Lorincz AL. The effects of topical nicotinamide, tetracycline and dapsone and potassium-iodide induced inflammation. J. Invest. Dermatol.74, 257–258 (1988).
   Google Scholar
• Thiboutot D. Acne: an overview of clinical research findings. Dermatol. Clin.15, 97–109 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunliffe WJ, Foster RA, Greenwood ND et al. Tetracycline and acne vulgaris: a clinical and laboratory investigation. BMJ4(5888), 332–335 (1973).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hassing GS. Inhibition of Corynebacterium acnes lipase by tetracycline. J. Invest. Dermatol.56, 189–192 (1971).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Webster GP, Leyden JJ, McGinley KJ et al. Suppression of polymorphonuclear leukocyte chemotactic factor in Propionibacterium acnes by subminimal inhibitory concentrations of tetracyclines, ampicillin, minocycline and erythromycin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.21, 770–777 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akamatsu H, Asada M, Komura J et al. Effect of doxycycline on the generation of reactive oxygen species; a possible mechanism of action of acne therapy with doxycycline. Acta Derm. Venereol.72, 178–179 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eady EA, Ingham E, Walters CE et al. Modulation of comedonal levels of interleukin-1 in acne patients treated with tetracyclines. J. Invest. Dermatol.101, 86–91 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nord CE, Oprica C. Antibiotic resistance in Propionibacterium acnes: microbiological and clinical aspects. Anaerobe12, 207–210 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raum E, Lietzau S, von Baum H et al. Changes in Escherichia coli resistance patterns during and after antibiotic therapy: a longitudinal study among outpatients in Germany. Clin. Microbiol. Infect.14, 41–48 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ozolins M, Eady EA, Avery AJ et al. Comparison of five antimicrobial regimens for treatment of mild to moderate inflammatory facial acne vulgaris in the community: randomised controlled trial. Lancet364, 2188–2195 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross JL, Snelling AM, Carnegie E et al. Antibiotic resistant acne: lessons from Europe. Br. J. Dermatol.148, 467–478 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dreno B, Bettoli V, Ochsendorf F et al. European recommendations on the use of oral antibiotics for acne. Eur. J. Dermatol.14, 391–399 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thiboutot D. New treatments and therapeutic strategies for acne. Acad. Fam. Med.9, 179–187 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Cunliffe WJ, Clayden AD, Gould D et al. Acne vulgaris – its aetiology and treatment. A review. Clin. Exp. Dermatol.6, 461–469 (1981).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibson JR, Darley CR, Harvey SG et al. Oral trimethoprim versus oxytetracycline in the treatment of inflammatory acne vulgaris. Br. J. Dermatol.107, 221–224 (1982).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bottomley WW, Cunliffe WJ. Oral trimethoprim as a third-line antibiotic in the management of acne vulgaris. Dermatology187, 193–196 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunliffe WJ, Aldana OL, Goulden V et al. Oral trimethoprim: a relatively safe and successful third-line treatment for acne vulgaris. Br. J. Dermatol.141, 757–758 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhambri S, Del Rosso JQ, Desai A. Oral trimethoprim in the treatment in the treatment of acne vulgaris. Cutis79, 430–434 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amin K, Riddle CC, Aires DJ et al. Common and alternative oral therapies for acne vulgaris: a review. J. Drugs Dermatol.6, 873–880 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rafiei R, Yaghoobi R. Azithromycin versus tetracycline in the treatment of acne vulgaris. J. Drugs Dermatol.17, 217–221 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Carraso DA, Vander Straten M, Tyring SK. A review of antibiotics in dermatology. J. Cut. Med. Surg.6, 128–150 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Knagga HE, Layton AM, Cunliffe WJ. The role of oral minocycline and erythromycin in tetracycline therapy-resistant acne – a retrospective study and review. J. Dermatol. Treat.4, 53–56 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Greenwood R, Burke B, Cunliffe WJ. Evaluation of a therapeutic strategy for the treatment of acne vulgaris with conventional therapy. Br. J. Dermatol.114, 353–358 (1986).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Coates P, Adams CA, Cunliffe WJ et al. Does oral isotretinoin prevent propionibacteria acnes resistance? Dermatology195(Suppl. 1), 4–9 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Rossi SS, Hersh EV. Antibiotics and oral contraceptives. Dent. Clin. North Am.46(4), 653–654 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Layton AM. A review on the treatment of acne vulgaris. Int. J. Clin. Pract.60(1), 64–72 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leyden JJ. New understandings of the pathogenesis of acne. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.32(Suppl.), 15–25 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunliffe WJ. Acne, hormones and treatment. BMJ (Clin. Res. Ed.)285(6346), 912–913 (1982).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stewart ME, Downing DT, Cook JS et al. Sebaceous gland activity and serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels in boys and girls. Arch. Dermatol.128, 1345–1348 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beylot C, Doutre MS, Beylot-Barry M. Oral contraceptives and cyproterone acetate in female acne treatment. Dermatology81, 70–74 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Lucky AW, McGuire J, Rosenfield RL et al. Plasma androgens in women with acne vulgaris. J. Invest. Dermatol.81, 70–74 (1983).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vexlau P, Husson C, Chivot M et al. Androgen excess in women with acne alone compared with acne and/or hirsutism. J. Invest. Dermatol.94, 279–283 (1990).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thiboutot D. Hormones and acne: pathophysiology, clinical evaluation and therapies. Sem. Cutan. Med. and Surg.20, 144–153 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darley CR, Moore JW, Besser GM et al. Low dose prednisolone or oestrogen in the treatment of women with late onset or persistent acne vulgaris. Br. J. Dermatol.108, 345–353 (1983).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lucky A. Hormonal correlates of acne and hirsutism. Am. J. Med.98, 895–945 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Saihan E, Burton J. Sebaceous gland suppression in female acne patients by combined glucocorticoid-oestrogen treatment. Br. J. Dermatol.103, 139–142 (1981).
   Google Scholar
• Pochi P, Strauss J. Sebaceous gland inhibition from combined glucocorticoid-estrogen treatment. Arch. Dermatol.112, 1108–1109 (1976).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arowojolu AO, Gallo MF, Lopez LM et al. Combined oral contraceptive pills for the treatment of acne. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (1), CD004425 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Speroff L, De Cherney A. Evaluation of a new generation of oral contraceptives. Obstet. Gynecol.81, 1034–1047 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Vloten W, van Haselen CW, van Zuuren EJ. The effect of two combined oral contraceptives containing either drospirenone or cyproterone acetate on acne and seborrhea. Cutis69, 1–15 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Faloia E, Filipponi S, Mancini V et al. Treatment with a gonadotrophin-releasing hormone agonist in acne or idiopathic hirsutism. J. Endocrinol. Invest.16, 675–677 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Greenwood R, Burke B, Brummitt L et al. Cyclic cyproterone/ethinyloestradiol for acne. Lancet2(8353), 796 (1983).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hanstead B, Reymann F. Cyproterone acetate in the treatment of acne vulgaris in adult females. Dermatologica164, 117–126 (1982).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Miller JA, Wojnarowska FT, Dowd PM et al. Anti-androgen treatment in women with acne: a controlled trial. Br. J. Dermatol.114, 705–716 (1986).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vasiakis-Scaramozza C, Jick H. Risk of venous thromboembolism with cyproterone contraceptives. Lancet358, 1427–1429 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Franks S, Layton A, Glasier A. Cyproterone acetate/ethinyl estradiol for acne and hirsutism: time to revise prescribing policy. Hum. Repod.23, 231–232 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Hylckama Vlieg A, Helmerhorst FM, Vandenbroucke JP et al. The venous thrombotic risk of oral contraceptives, effects of oestrogen dose and progestogen type: results of the MEGA case-control study. BMJ339, B2921 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thiboutot DM, Knaggs H, Gilliland K et al. Activity of type 1 5α-reductase is greater in the follicular infundibulum compared with the epidermis. Br. J. Dermatol.136, 166–171 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwood R, Brummitt L, Burne B et al. Acne: double-blind clinical and laboratory trial of tetracycline, oestrogen, cyproterone acetate and combined treatment. BMJ291, 1231–1235 (1985).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Wayjen R, van den Ende A. Experience in the long-term treatment of patient with hirsutism and/or acne with cyproterone acetate containing preparations: efficacy, metabolic and endocrine effects. Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes103, 241–251 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gollnick H, Albring M, Brill K. Effcacitè de l’acètate de cyprotèrone oral associe à l’èthinylestradiol dans le traitement de l’acnè tardive de type facial. Ann. Endocrinol.60, 157–166 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sawaya ME, Hordinsky MK. The antiandrogens: when and how they should be used. Dermatol. Clin.11, 65–72 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Muhlemann MF, Carter GD, Cream JJ et al. Oral spironalactone: an effective treatment for acne vulgaris in women. Br. J. Dermatol.115, 227–232 (1986).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodfellow A, Alaghband-Zadeh J, Carter C et al. Oral spironalactone improves acne vulgaris and reduces sebum excretion. Br. J. Dermatol.111, 209–214 (1984).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lubbos H, Rose LI. Adverse effects of spironalactone therapy in women with acne. Arch. Dermatol.134, 1162–1163 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thiboutot D. Acne: hormonal concepts and therapy. Clin. Dermatol.22, 419–428 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Farquhar C, Lee O, Toomath R et al. Spironalactone versus placebo or in combination with steroids for hirsutism and/or acne. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (4), CD000194 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Shaw JC. Low dose adjunctive spironalactone in the treatment of acne in a retrospective analysis of 85 patients consecutively treated patients. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.43, 498–502 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcoux D, Thiboutot D. Hormonal therapy for acne. J. Cutan. Med. Surg.1(Suppl. 1), 52–56 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Loube SD, Quirk RA. Breast cancer associated with administration of spironalactone. Lancet1(7922), 1428–1429 (1975).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calaf J, Lopez E, Millet A et al. Long term efficacy and tolerability of flutamide compared with oral contraception in moderate to severe hirsutism: a 12-month, double-blind, parallel clinical trial. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.92, 3446–3450 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cusan L, Dupont A, Gomez FL et al. Comparison of flutamide and spironalactone in the treatment of hirsutism: a randomized control trial. Fertil. Steril.61, 281–287 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Wysowski D, Freiman J, Tourtelot J et al. Fatal and non-fatal hepatotoxicity associated with flutamide. Ann. Intern. Med.118, 860–864 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wysowski DK, Fourcroy JL. Flutamide hepatotoxicity. J. Urol.155, 209–212 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martin KA, Chang RJ, Ehrmann DA et al. Evaluation and treatment of hirsutism in pre-menopausal women: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.93, 1105–1120 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moghetti P, Castello R, Negri C et al. Flutamide in the treatment of hirsutism: long-term clinical effects, endocrine changes, and androgen receptor behaviour. Fertil. Steril.68, 644–647 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Castelo-Branco C, Moyano D, Gomez O et al. Long-term safety and tolerability of flutamide for the treatment of hirsutism. Fertil. Steril.91(4), 1183–1188 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Zegher F, Ibanez L. Low dose flutamide for women with androgen excess: anti-androgenic efficacy and hepatic safety. J. Endocrinol. Invest.32, 83–84 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Calaf J, Lopez E, Millet A et al. ; the Spanish Working Group for Hirsutism. Long term efficacy and tolerability of flutamide combined with oral contraception in moderate to severe hirsutism. A 12-month, double-blind parallel clinical trial. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.92, 3446–3452 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King K, Jones DH, Daltry DC et al. A double-blind study of the effects of 13-cis-retinoic acid on acne, sebum excretion rate and microbial population. Br. J. Dermatol.107, 583–590 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allenby G, Bocquel MT, Saunders M et al. Retinoic acid receptors and retinoid X receptors: interactions with endogenous retinoic acids. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA90, 30–34 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsukada M, Schroder M, Roos TC et al. 13-cis retinoic acid exerts its specific activity on human sebocytes through selective intracellular isomerisation to all-trans-retinoic acid and binding to retinoid acid receptors. J. Invest. Dermatol.115, 321–327 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Layton AM, Knaggs HE, Taylor J et al. Isotretinoin for acne vulgaris – 10 years later. A safe and successful treatment. Br. J. Dermatol.129, 292–296 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward A, Brogden RN, Heel RC et al. Isotretinoin: a review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic efficacy in acne and other skin disorders. Drugs28, 6–37 (1984).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farrell LN, Strauss JS, Stranieri AM. The treatment of severe cystic acne with 13-cis-retinoin acid: evaluation of sebum production and the clinical response in a multiple dose trial. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.3, 602–611 (1980).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalziel K, Barton S, Marks R. The effect of isotretinoin on follicular and sebaceous gland differentiation. Br. J. Dermatol.117, 317–323 (1987).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leyden JJ, McGinley KJ, Foglia AN. Qualitative and quantitative changes in cutaneous bacteria associated with systemic isotretinoin therapy for acne conglobata. J. Invest. Dermatol.86, 390–393 (1986).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Strauss JS, Stranieri AM. Changes in long-term sebum production from isotretinoin therapy. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.6, 751–755 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Layton AM, Dreno B, Gollnick HPM et al. A review of the European Directive for prescribing systemic isotretinoin for acne vulgaris. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol.20, 773–776 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colburn WA, Gibson DM, Wiens RE et al. Food increases the bioavailability of isotretinoin. J. Clin. Pharmacol.23, 534–538 (1983).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soria C, Allegue F, Galiana J et al. Decreased isotretinoin efficacy during acute alcohol intake. Dermatologica182, 203 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harms M, Masye I, Radeff B. The relapses of cystic acne after isotretinoin treatment are age related: a long term follow up study. Dermatologica172, 148–153 (1986).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goulden V, Clark M, McGeown C et al. Treatment of acne with intermittent isotretinoin. Br. J. Dermatol.137, 106–108 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akman A, Durusoy C, Senturk M et al. Treatment of acne with intermittent and conventional isotretinoin: a randomized, controlled multicentre study. Arch. Dermatol. Res.299, 467–473 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark SM, Goulden V, Cunliffe WJ. The management of acne patients who respond slowly to oral isotretinoin. Br. J. Dermatol.135–120 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lehucher-Ceyrac D, Salmoniere P, Chastang C et al. Predictive factors for failure of isotretinoin treatment in acne patients: results from a cohort of 237 patients. Dermatology198, 278–283 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stainforth JM, Layton AM, Taylor JP et al. Isotretinoin for the treatment of acne vulgaris: which factors may predict the need for more than one course? Br. J. Dermatol.129, 297–301 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White GM, Yao J, Wolde-Tsadik G. Recurrence rates after one course of isotretinoin. Arch. Dermatol.134, 376–378 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Clark SM, Cunliffe WJ. Acne flare and isotretinoin – incidence and treatment. Br. J. Dermatol.133(Suppl. 45), 26 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Pepall LM, Cosgrove MP, Cunliffe WJ. Ablation of whiteheads by cautery under topical anaesthetic. Br. J. Dermatol.125, 256–259 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell AA, van Bennekom CM, Louik C. A pregnancy prevention program in women of child-bearing age receiving isotretinoin. N. Engl. J. Med.333, 101–106 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern RS. When a uniquely effective drug is teratogenic: the case of isotretinoin. N. Engl. J. Med.320, 1007–1009 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams RE, Doherty VR, Perkins W et al.Staphylococcus aureus and intra-nasal mupirocin in patients receiving isotretinoin for acne. Br. J. Dermatol.126, 362–366 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karvone S. Acne fulminans: report of clinical findings and treatment of 24 patients. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.28, 572–579 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jick S, Kremers H, Vasilakis-Scaramozza C. Isotretinoin use and risk of depression, psychotic symptoms, suicide and attempted suicide. Arch. Dermatol.136, 1231–1236 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jacobs DG, Deutsch NL, Brewer M. Suicide, depression and isotretinoin: is there a causal risk? J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.45, S168–S175 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wysowaski DK, Pitts M, Beitz J. An analysis of reports of depression and suicide in patients treated with isotretinoin. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.45, S15–S19 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Azoulay L, Blais L, Koren G et al. Isotretinoin and the risk of depression in patients with acne vulgaris: a case cross over study. J. Clin. Psych.198, E1–E7 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Lee AG. Pseudotumor cerebri after treatment with tetracycline and isotretinoin for acne. Cutis55, 165–168 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amichai B, Grunwald MH. Isotretinoin in dermatology. J. Dermatol. Treat.11, 219–240 (2000).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altman RS, Altman LJ, Altman JS. A proposed set of new guidelines for routine blood tests during isotretinoin therapy for acne vulgaris. Dermatology204, 232–235 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bottomley WW, Yip J, Knaggs H et al. Treatment of closed comedones – comparisons of fulguration with topical tretinoin and electrocautery with fulguration. Dermatology186, 253–257 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Horton CE, Sadove RC. Refinements in combined chemical peel and simultaneous abrasion of the face. Ann. Plast. Surg.19, 504–511 (1987).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Monheit GD. The Jessner’s tricholoroacetic acid peel. An enhanced medium depth chemical peel. Dermatol. Clin.13, 273–283 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Furukawa F, Yamamoto Y. Recent advances in chemical peeling in Japan. J. Dermatol.33, 655–661 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Orentreich N, Durr NP, Frank SB (Eds). Acne. Yorke Medical Books, NY, USA (1979).
   Google Scholar
• Callen JP. Intralesional corticosteroids. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.4, 149–151 (1981).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine RM, Rasmussen JE. Intralesional corticosteroids in the treatment of nodulocystic acne. Arch. Dermatol.119, 480–481 (1983).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schonberg IL, Litz JZ. Fluro-therapy cryotherapy: an adjuvant in the treatment of acne vulgaris and post acne scarring. Ohio Med.54, 1046 (1958).
   Google Scholar
• Elman M, Lebzelter J. Light therapy in the treatment of acne vulgaris. Dermatol. Surg.30, 139–146 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeina B, Greenman J, Corry D et al. Cytotoxic effects of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy on keratinocytes. Br. J. Dermatol.146, 568–573 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ross EV. Optical treatments for acne. Dermatol. Ther.18, 253–266 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alexiades-Armenakas M. Laser-mediated photodynamic therapy. Clin. Dermatol.24, 16–25 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster GF. Laser treatment of acne. Lancet362, 1342 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lloyd JR. Selective photothermolysis of the sebaceous glands for acne treatment. Lasers Surg. Med.31, 115–120 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mariwalla K. Use of lasers and light-based therapies for treatment of acne vulgaris. Lasers Surg. Med.37(5), 333–342 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hædersdal M, Togsverd-Bo K, Wulf HC. Evidence-based review of lasers, light sources and photodynamic therapy in the treatment of acne vulgaris. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol.22, 267–278 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horfelt C, Funk J, Frohm-Nilsson M et al. Topical methyl aminolevulinate photodynamic therapy for treatment of facial acne vulgaris: results of a randomized, controlled study. Br. J. Dermatol.155, 608–613 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiegell SR, Wulf HC. Photodynamic therapy of acne vulgaris using methyl aminolevulinate: a blinded, randomized, controlled trial. Br. J. Dermatol.154, 969–976 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiegell SR, Wulf HC. Photodynamic therapy for acne vulgaris using 5-aminolevulinic acid versus methyl aminolevulinate. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.54, 647–651 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pollock B, Turner D, Stringer MR et al. Topical aminolevulinic acid-photodynamic therapy for the treatment of acne vulgaris: a study of clinical efficacy and mechanism of action. Br. J. Dermatol.151, 616–622 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hongcharu W, Taylor CR, Chang Y et al. Topical ALA-photodynamic therapy for the treatment of acne vulgaris. J. Invest. Dermatol.115, 183–192 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiegell SR, Wulf HC. Photodynamic therapy of acne vulgaris using methyl aminolaevulinic acid: a blinded, randomized, controlled trial. Br. J. Dermatol.154, 969–976 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeung CK, Shek SY, Bjerring P et al. A comparative study of intense pulsed light alone and its combination with photodynamic therapy for the treatment of facial acne in Asian skin. Lasers Surg. Med.39, 1–6 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rojanamatin J, Choawawanich P. Treatment of inflammatory facial acne vulgaris with intense pulsed light and short contact of topical 5-aminolevulinic acid: a pilot study. Dermatol. Surg.32, 991–997 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santos MA, Belo VG, Santos G. Effectiveness of photodynamic therapy with topical 5-aminolevulinic acid and intense pulsed light versus intense pulsed light alone in the treatment of acne vulgaris: comparative study. Dermatol. Surg.31, 910–914 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seaton ED, Charakida A, Mouser PE et al. Pulsed-dye laser treatment for inflammatory acne vulgaris: randomized controlled trial. Lancet362, 1347–1352 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paithankar DY, Ross EV, Saleh BA et al. Acne treatment with a 1450 nm wavelength laser and cryogen spray cooling. Lasers Surg. Med.31, 106–114 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baugh WP, Kucaba WD. Nonablative phototherapy for acne vulgaris using the KTP 532 nm laser. Dermatol. Surg.31, 1290–1295 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gold MH, Rao J, Goldman MP et al. A multicentre clinical evaluation of the treatment of mild to moderate inflammatory acne vulgaris of the face with visible blue light in comparison to topical 1% clindamycin antibiotic solution. J. Drugs Dermatol.4, 64–70 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tzung T-Y, Wu K-H, Huang M-L. Blue light phototherapy in the treatment of acne. Photodermatol. Photoimmunol. Photomed.20, 266–269 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papageorgiou P, Katsambas A, Chu A. Phototherapy with blue (415 nm) and red (660 nm) light in the treatment of acne vulgaris. Br. J. Dermatol.142, 973–978 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Car J, Car M, Hamilton F et al.The Cochrane Collaboration: Light Therapies for Acne (Protocol). The Cochrane Library (Issue 3). John Wiley & Sons Ltd, London, UK (2009).
   Google Scholar