Structural and functional brain imaging in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

References

• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association, DC, USA (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Barkley RA, Fischer M, Smallish L, Fletcher K. The persistence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into young adulthood as a function of reporting source and definition of disorder. J. Abnorm. Psychol.111(2), 279–289 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biederman J, Monuteaux MC, Mick E et al. Young adult outcome of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a controlled 10-year follow-up study. Psychol. Med.36(2), 167–179 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faraone SV, Biederman J. What is the prevalence of adult ADHD? Results of a population screen of 966 adults. J. Atten. Disord.9(2), 384–391 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kessler RC, Adler L, Barkley R et al. The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Am. J. Psychiatry163(4), 716–723 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Taylor E, Smith AB, Oksanen H, Overmeyer S, Newman S. Neuropsychological analyses of impulsiveness in childhood hyperactivity. Br. J. Psychiatry179, 138–143 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF. Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biol. Psychiatry57(11), 1336–1346 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Smith A, Taylor E. Performance of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on a test battery for impulsiveness. Child Neuropsychology30(2), 659–695 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Halari R, Christakou A, Taylor E. Impulsiveness as a timing disturbance: neurocognitive abnormalities in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder during temporal processes and normalization with methylphenidate. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci.364(1525), 1919–1931 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luman M, Oosterlaan J, Sergeant JA. The impact of reinforcement contingencies on AD/HD: a review and theoretical appraisal. Clin. Psychol. Rev.25(2), 183–213 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biederman J, Petty CR, Fried R et al. Stability of executive function deficits into young adult years: a prospective longitudinal follow-up study of grown up males with ADHD. Acta Psychiatr. Scand.116(2), 129–136 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bekker EM, Overtoom CC, Kooij JJ, Buitelaar JK, Verbaten MN, Kenemans JL. Disentangling deficits in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry62(10), 1129–1136 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bekker EM, Overtoom CC, Kenemans JL et al. Stopping and changing in adults with ADHD. Psychol. Med.35(6), 807–816 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King JA, Colla M, Brass M, Heuser I, von Cramon D. Inefficient cognitive control in adult ADHD: evidence from trial-by-trial Stroop test and cued task switching performance. Behav. Brain Funct.3, 42–61 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapport LJ, Van Voorhis A, Tzelepis A, Friedman SR. Executive functioning in adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Clin. Neuropsychol.15(4), 479–491 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein JN, Johnson DE, Varia IM, Conners CK. Neuropsychological assessment of response inhibition in adults with ADHD. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol.23(3), 362–371 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy P. Inhibitory control in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Atten. Disord.6(1), 1–4 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boonstra A, Oosterlaan J, Sergeant J, Buitelaar J. Executive functioning in adult ADHD: a meta-analytic review. Psychol. Med.35(8), 1097–1108 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean A, Dowson J, Toone B et al. Characteristic neurocognitive profile associated with adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychol. Med.34(4), 681–692 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hervey AS, Epstein JN, Curry JF. Neuropsychology of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology18(3), 485–503 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dige N, Wik G. Adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder identified by neuropsychological testing. Int. J. Neurosci.115(2), 169–183 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dige N, Maahr E, Backenroth-Ohsako G. Reduced capacity in a dichotic memory test for adult patients with ADHD. J. Atten. Disord. DOI: 10.1177/1087054709347245 (2009) (Epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• Epstein JN, Conners CK, Sitarenios G, Erhardt D. Continuous performance test results of adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Clin. Neuropsychol.12(2), 155–168 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corbett B, Stanczak DE. Neuropsychological performance of adults evidencing attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol.14(4), 373–387 (1999).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker AJ, Shores EA, Trollor JN, Lee T, Sachdev PS. Neuropsychological functioning of adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol.22(1), 115–124 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malloy-Diniz L, Fuentes D, Leite WB, Correa H, Bechara A. Impulsive behavior in adults with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: characterization of attentional, motor and cognitive impulsiveness. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc.13(4), 693–698 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krain AL, Castellanos FX. Brain development and ADHD. Clin. Psychol. Rev.26(4), 433–444 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw P, Eckstrand K, Sharp W et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is characterized by a delay in cortical maturation. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA104(49), 19649–19654 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hesslinger B, Tebartz van Elst L, Thiel T, Haegele K, Hennig J, Ebert D. Frontoorbital volume reductions in adult patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurosci. Lett.328(3), 319–321 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N et al. Dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex volumetric abnormalities in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder identified by magnetic resonance imaging. Biol. Psychiatry60(10), 1071–1080 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Makris N, Biederman J, Valera EM et al. Cortical thinning of the attention and executive function networks in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Cereb. Cortex17(6), 1364–1375 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Makris N, Buka SL, Biederman J et al. Attention and executive systems abnormalities in adults with childhood ADHD: a DT-MRI study of connections. Cereb. Cortex18(5), 1210–1220 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durston S, Tottenham NT, Thomas KM et al. Differential patterns of striatal activation in young children with and without ADHD. Biol. Psychiatry53(10), 871–878 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Booth JR, Burman DD, Meyer JR et al. Larger deficits in brain networks for response inhibition than for visual selective attention in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). J. Child. Psychol. Pschiatry46(1), 94–111 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durston S, Mulder M, Casey BJ, Ziermans T, van Engeland H. Activation in ventral prefrontal cortex is sensitive to genetic vulnerability for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry60(10), 1062–1070 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Overmeyer S, Taylor E et al. Hypofrontality in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during higher-order motor control: a study with functional MRI. Am. J. Psychiatry156(6), 891–896 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Smith AB, Brammer MJ, Toone B, Taylor E. Abnormal brain activation during inhibition and error detection in medication-naive adolescents with ADHD. Am. J. Psychiatry162(6), 1067–1075 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith AB, Taylor E, Brammer M, Toone B, Rubia K. Task-specific hypoactivation in prefrontal and temporoparietal brain regions during motor inhibition and task switching in medication-naive children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry163(6), 1044–1051 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Smith AB, Brammer MJ, Taylor E. Temporal lobe dysfunction in medication-naive boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder during attention allocation and its relation to response variability. Biol. Psychiatry62(9), 999–1006 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens MC, Pearlson GD, Kiehl KA. An fMRI auditory oddball study of combined-subtype attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry164(11), 1737–1749 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamm L, Menon V, Reiss AL. Parietal attentional system aberrations during target detection in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: event-related fMRI evidence. Am. J. Psychiatry163(6), 1033–1043 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dickstein SG, Bannon K, Castellanos FX, Milham MP. The neural correlates of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: an ALE meta-analysis. J. Child. Psychol. Pschiatry47(10), 1051–1062 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paloyelis Y, Mehta MA, Kuntsi J, Asherson P. Functional MRI in ADHD: a systematic literature review. Expert Rev. Neurother.7(10), 1337–1356 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith AB, Taylor E, Brammer M, Halari R, Rubia K. Reduced activation in right lateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus in medication-naive adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during time discrimination. J. Child. Psychol. Pschiatry49(9), 977–985 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Smith A, Halari R et al. Disorder-specific dissociation of orbitofrontal dysfunction in boys with pure conduct disorder during reward and ventrolateral prefrontal dysfunction in boys with pure attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder during sustained attention. Am. J. Psychiatry166, 83–94 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Halari R, Smith AB et al. Dissociated functional brain abnormalities of inhibition in boys with pure conduct disorder and in boys with pure attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry165(7), 889–897 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Halari R, Smith AB, Mohammad M, Scott S, Brammer MJ. Shared and disorder-specific prefrontal abnormalities in boys with pure attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder compared to boys with pure CD during interference inhibition and attention allocation. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiatry50(6), 669–678 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Halari R, Cubillo A, Mohammad A, Scott S, Brammer M. Disorder-specific inferior frontal dysfunction in boys with pure attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder compared to boys with pure CD during cognitive flexibility. Hum. Brain Mapp. DOI: 10.1002/hbm.20975 (2010) (In press).
   Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Cubillo A, Woolley J, Halari R, Smith A, Brammer M. Disorder-specific dysfunctions in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder compared to boys with obsessive-compulsive disorder during interference inhibition and attention allocation. Hum. Brain Mapp. DOI: 10.1002/hbm.21048 (2010) (In press).
   Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Cubillo A, Smith AB, Woolley J, Heyman I, Brammer MJ. Disorder-specific dysfunction in right inferior prefrontal cortex during two inhibition tasks in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder compared to boys with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Hum. Brain Mapp.31(2), 287–299(2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Smith AB, Woolley J et al. Progressive increase of frontostriatal brain activation from childhood to adulthood during event-related tasks of cognitive control. Hum. Brain Mapp.27(12), 973–993 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Smith AB, Taylor E, Brammer M. Linear age-correlated functional development of right inferior fronto–striato–cerebellar networks during response inhibition and anterior cingulate during error-related processes. Hum. Brain Mapp.28(11), 1163–1177 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Smith AB, Brammer MJ, Taylor E. Right inferior prefrontal cortex mediates response inhibition while mesial prefrontal cortex is responsible for error detection. Neuroimage20(1), 351–358 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Russell T, Overmeyer S et al. Mapping motor inhibition: conjunctive brain activations across different versions of go/no-go and stop tasks. Neuroimage13(2), 250–261 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein JN, Casey BJ, Tonev ST et al. ADHD- and medication-related brain activation effects in concordantly affected parent-child dyads with ADHD. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry48(9), 899–913 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dibbets P, Evers L, Hurks P, Marchetta N, Jolles J. Differences in feedback- and inhibition-related neural activity in adult ADHD. Brain Cogn.70(1), 73–83 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cubillo A, Halari R, Ecker C, Giampietro V, Taylor E, Rubia K. Reduced activation and inter-regional functional connectivity of fronto–striatal networks in adults with childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and persisting symptoms during tasks of motor inhibition and cognitive switching. J. Psychiatr. Res. DOI: 10.1016/j.psychires.2009.11.016 (2010) (Epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• Pliszka SR, Glahn DC, Semrud-Clikeman M et al. Neuroimaging of inhibitory control areas in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder who were treatment naive or in long-term treatment. Am. J. Psychiatry163(6), 1052–1060 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christakou A, Halari R, Smith AB, Ifkovits E, Brammer M, Rubia K. Sex-dependent age modulation of frontostriatal and temporo–parietal activation during cognitive control. Neuroimage48(1), 223–236 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biederman J, Mick E, Faraone SV et al. Influence of gender on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children referred to a psychiatric clinic. Am. J. Psychiatry159(1), 36–42 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gershon J. A meta-analytic review of gender differences in ADHD. J. Atten. Disord.5(3), 143–154 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mahone EM, Wodka EL. The neurobiological profile of girls with ADHD. Dev. Disabil. Res. Rev.14(4), 276–284 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Valera EM, Brown A, Biederman J et al. Sex differences in the functional neuroanatomy of working memory in adults with ADHD. Am. J. Psychiatry167(1), 86–94 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Derrfuss J, Brass M, Neumann J, von Cramon DY. Involvement of the inferior frontal junction in cognitive control: meta-analyses of switching and Stroop studies. Hum. Brain Mapp.25, 22–34 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laird AR, McMillan KM, Lancaster JL et al. A comparison of label-based review and ALE meta-analysis in the Stroop task. Hum. Brain Mapp.25(1), 6–21 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu X, Banich MT, Jacobson BL, Tanabe JL. Common and distinct neural substrates of attentional control in an integrated Simon and spatial Stroop task as assessed by event-related fMRI. Neuroimage22(3), 1097–1106 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cabeza R, Nyberg L. Imaging cognition II: an empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies. J. Cogn. Neurosci.12(1), 1–47 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bush G, Frazier JA, Rauch SL et al. Anterior cingulate cortex dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder revealed by fMRI and the Counting Stroop. Biol. Psychiatry45(12), 1542–1552 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cubillo A, Halari R, Giampietro V, Taylor E, Rubia K. Fronto–striatal hypo-activation during interference inhibition and attention allocation in a group of grown up children with ADHD with persistent hyperactive/inattentive behaviours in adulthood. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolsc. Psychiatry (2010) (In press).
   Google Scholar
• Banich MT, Burgess GC, Depue BE et al. The neural basis of sustained and transient attentional control in young adults with ADHD. Neuropsychologia47(14), 3095–3104 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Carter C, Braver TS, Barch DM, Botvinick MM, Noll D, Cohen JD. Anterior cingulate cortex, error detection and the on-line monitoring of performance. Science280, 747–749 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridderinkhof KR, van den Wildenberg WPM, Segalowitz SJ, Carter CS. Neurocognitive mechanisms of cognitive control: the role of prefrontal cortex in action selection, response inhibition, performance monitoring, and reward-based learning. Brain Cogn.56, 129–140 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Konrad K, Neufang S, Hanisch C, Fink GR, Herpertz-Dahlmann B. Dysfunctional attentional networks in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: evidence from an event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol. Psychiatry59(7), 643–651 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaidya CJ, Bunge SA, Dudukovic NM, Zalecki CA. Altered neural substrates of cognitive control in childhood ADHD: evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging. Am. J. Psychiatry162(9), 1605–1613 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biederman J, Mick E, Faraone SV. Age-dependent decline of symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: impact of remission definition and symptom type. Am. J. Psychiatry157(5), 816–818 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark VP, Fannon S, Lai S, Benson R, Bauer L. Responses to rare visual target and distracter stimuli using event-related fMRI. J. Neurophysiol.83(5), 3133–3139 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Downar J, Crawley AP, Mikulis DJ, Davis KD. A multimodal cortical network for the detection of changes in the sensory environment. Nat. Neurosci.3(3), 277–283 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ardekani BA, Choi SJ, Hossein-Zadeh GA et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of brain activity in the visual oddball task. Brain Res. Cogn. Brain Res.14(3), 347–356 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rubia K, Hyde Z, Halari R, Giampietro V. Effects of age and sex on developmental neural networks of visual-spatial attention allocation. Neuroimage DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.02.058 (2010) (In press).
   Google Scholar
• Cubillo A, Halari R, Smith A, Taylor E, Rubia K. Fronto–cerebellar brain dysfunction in adults with childhood ADHD during sustained attention and reward Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol.19(Suppl. 3), S303 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Voisin J, Bidet-Caulet A, Bertrand O, Fonlupt P. Listening in silence activates auditory areas: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. J. Neurosci.26(1), 273–278 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence NS, Ross TJ, Hoffmann R, Garavan H, Stein EA. Multiple neuronal networks mediate sustained attention. J. Cogn. Neurosci.15(7), 1028–1038 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith AB, Taylor E, Brammer M, Rubia K. Neural correlates of switching set as measured in fast, event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. Hum. Brain Mapp.21(4), 247–256 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Buchsbaum BR, Greer S, Chang WL, Berman KF. Meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies of the Wisconsin card-sorting task and component processes. Hum. Brain Mapp.25(1), 35–45 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schweitzer J, Faber T, Grafton S, Tune L, Hoffman J, Kilts C. Alterations in the functional anatomy of working memory in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry157(2), 278–280 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schweitzer JB, Lee DO, Hanford RB et al. Effect of methylphenidate on executive functioning in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: normalization of behavior but not related brain activity. Biol. Psychiatry56(8), 597–606 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlis AC, Bahne CG, Jacob CP, Herrmann MJ, Fallgatter AJ. Reduced lateral prefrontal activation in adult patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) during a working memory task: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) study. J. Psychiatr. Res.42(13), 1060–1067 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf RC, Plichta MM, Sambataro F et al. Regional brain activation changes and abnormal functional connectivity of the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex during working memory processing in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Hum. Brain Mapp.30(7), 2252–2266 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hale TS, Bookheimer S, McGough JJ, Phillips JM, McCracken JT. Atypical brain activation during simple and complex levels of processing in adult ADHD: an fMRI study. J. Atten. Disord.11(2), 125–139 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marsh R, Gerber AJ, Peterson BS. Neuroimaging studies of normal brain development and their relevance for understanding childhood neuropsychiatric disorders. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry47(11), 1233–1251 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valera EM, Faraone SV, Biederman J, Poldrack RA, Seidman LJ. Functional neuroanatomy of working memory in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry57(5), 439–447 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ernst M, Cohen RM, Liebenauer LL, Jons PH, Zametkin AJ. Cerebral glucose metabolism in adolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry36(10), 1399–1406 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sheridan MA, Hinshaw S, D’Esposito M. Efficiency of the prefrontal cortex during working memory in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry46(10), 1357–1366 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Scheres A, Milham MP, Knutson B, Castellanos FX. Ventral striatal hyporesponsiveness during reward anticipation in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry61(5), 720–724 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence NS, Jollant F, O’Daly O, Zelaya F, Phillips ML. Distinct roles of prefrontal cortical subregions in the Iowa Gambling Task. Cereb. Cortex19(5), 1134–1143 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ernst M, Kimes AS, London ED et al. Neural substrates of decision making in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry160(6), 1061–1070 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knutson B, Fong GW, Adams CM, Varner JL, Hommer D. Dissociation of reward anticipation and outcome with event-related fMRI. Neuroreport12(17), 3683–3687 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knutson B, Cooper JC. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of reward prediction. Curr. Opin. Neurol.18(4), 411–417 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith A, Halari R, Giampietro V, Brammer M, Rubia K. Developmental effects of reward on sustained attention networks. Hum. Brain Mapp. (2010) (In press).
   Google Scholar
• Str öhle A, Stoy M, Wrase J et al. Reward anticipation and outcomes in adult males with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuroimage39(3), 966–972 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Plichta MM, Vasic N, Wolf RC et al. Neural hyporesponsiveness and hyperresponsiveness during immediate and delayed reward processing in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry65(1), 7–14 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballard K, Knutson B. Dissociable neural representations of future reward magnitude and delay during temporal discounting. Neuroimage45(1), 143–150 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hariri AR, Brown SM, Williamson DE, Flory JD, de Wit H, Manuck SB. Preference for immediate over delayed rewards is associated with magnitude of ventral striatal activity. J. Neurosci.26(51), 13213–13217 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu L, Liang ZY, Wang K, Li S, Jiang T. Neural mechanism of intertemporal choice: from discounting future gains to future losses. Brain Res.1261, 65–74 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wittmann M, Leland DS, Paulus MP. Time and decision making: differential contribution of the posterior insular cortex and the striatum during a delay discounting task. Exp. Brain Res.179(4), 643–653 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blair RJ. The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. Brain Cogn.55(1), 198–208 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill J, Harrington R, Fudge H, Rutter M, Pickles A. Adult personality functioning assessment (APFA). An investigator-based standardised interview. Br. J. Psychiatry155, 24–35 (1989).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kriegeskorte N, Simmons WK, Bellgowan PS, Baker CI. Circular analysis in systems neuroscience: the dangers of double dipping. Nat. Neurosci.12(5), 535–540 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao QJ, Zang YF, Sun L et al. Abnormal neural activity in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuroreport17(10), 1033–1036 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zang YF, He Y, Zhu CZ et al. Altered baseline brain activity in children with ADHD revealed by resting-state functional MRI. Brain Dev.29(2), 83–91 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tian L, Jiang T, Wang Y et al. Altered resting-state functional connectivity patterns of anterior cingulate cortex in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurosci. Lett.400(1–2), 39–43 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castellanos FX, Margulies DS, Kelly C et al. Cingulate-precuneus interactions: a new locus of dysfunction in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry63(3), 332–337 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Halari R, Cubillo A, Mohammad M, Taylor E. Methylphenidate normalises activation and functional connectivity deficits in attention and motivation networks in medication-naive children with ADHD during a rewarded continuous performance task. Neuropharmacology57(7–8), 640–652 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnsten AFT. Stimulants: therapeutic actions in ADHD. Neuropsychopharmacology31(11), 2376–2383 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilens TE. Effects of methylphenidate on the catecholaminergic system in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.28(3 Suppl. 2), S46–S53 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vaidya CJ, Austin G, Kirkorian G et al. Selective effects of methylphenidate in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a functional magnetic resonance study. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA95(24), 14494–14499 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shafritz KM, Marchione KE, Gore JC, Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA. The effects of methylphenidate on neural systems of attention in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry161(11), 1990–1997 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kobel M, Bechtel N, Weber P et al. Effects of methylphenidate on working memory functioning in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol.13(6), 516–523 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Konrad K, Neufang S, Fink GR, Herpertz-Dahlmann B. Long-term effects of methylphenidate on neural networks associated with executive attention in children with ADHD: results from a longitudinal functional MRI study. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry46, 1633–1641 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bush G, Spencer TJ, Holmes J et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of methylphenidate and placebo in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder during the multi-source interference task. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry65(1), 102–114 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castellanos FX, Lee PP, Sharp W et al. Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA288(14), 1740–1748 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mackie S, Shaw P, Lenroot R et al. Cerebellar development and clinical outcome in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry164(4), 647–655 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw P, Gornick M, Lerch J et al. Polymorphisms of the dopamine D-4 receptor, clinical outcome, and cortical structure in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry64(8), 921–931 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Todd RD, Huang H, Henderson CA. Poor utility of the age of onset criterion for DSM-IV attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: recommendations for DSM-V and ICD-11. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry49(9), 942–949 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faraone SV, Biederman J, Spencer T et al. Diagnosing adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: are late onset and subthreshold diagnoses valid? Am. J. Psychiatry163(10), 1720–1729; quiz 1859 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Klein DF, Bessler A, Shrout P. Accuracy of adult recall of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry159(11), 1882–1888 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGough JJ, Smalley SL, McCracken JT et al. Psychiatric comorbidity in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: findings from multiplex families. Am. J. Psychiatry162(9), 1621–1627 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller TW, Nigg JT, Faraone SV. Axis I and II comorbidity in adults with ADHD. J. Abnorm. Psychol.116(3), 519–528 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen PS, Martin D, Cantwell DP. Comorbidity in ADHD: implications for research, practice, and DSM-V. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry36(8), 1065–1079 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw P, Sharp WS, Morrison M et al. Psychostimulant treatment and the developing cortex in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry166(1), 58–63 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schweitzer JB, Lee DO, Hanford RB et al. A positron emission tomography study of methylphenidate in adults with ADHD: alterations in resting blood flow and predicting treatment response. Neuropsychopharmacology28(5), 967–973 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durston S, Fossella JA, Casey BJ et al. Differential effects of DRD4 and DAT1 genotype on fronto–striatal gray matter volumes in a sample of subjects with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, their unaffected siblings, and controls. Mol. Psychiatry10(7), 678–685 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durston S, Fossella JA, Mulder MJ et al. Dopamine transporter genotype conveys familial risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder through striatal activation. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry47(1), 61–67 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ecker C, Rocha-Rego V, Johnston P et al. Investigating the predictive value of whole-brain structural MR scans in autism: a pattern classification approach. Neuroimage49(1), 44–56 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fu CH, Mourao-Miranda J, Costafreda SG et al. Pattern classification of sad facial processing: toward the development of neurobiological markers in depression. Biol. Psychiatry63(7), 656–662 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marquand A, Howard M, Brammer M, Chu C, Coen S, Mourao-Miranda J. Quantitative prediction of subjective pain intensity from whole-brain fMRI data using Gaussian processes. Neuroimage49(3), 2178–2189 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davatzikos C, Shen D, Gur RC et al. Whole-brain morphometric study of schizophrenia revealing a spatially complex set of focal abnormalities. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry62(11), 1218–1227 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar