Respiratory viral and pneumococcal coinfection of the respiratory tract: implications of pneumococcal vaccination

References

• O’Brien KL, Wolfson LJ, Watt JP et al.; Hib and Pneumococcal Global Burden of Disease Study Team. Burden of disease caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae in children younger than 5 years: global estimates. Lancet 374(9693), 893–902 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• No authors listed. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine for childhood immunization – WHO position paper. Wkly Epidemiol. Rec. 82(12), 93–104 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jones N, Huebner R, Khoosal M, Crewe-Brown H, Klugman K. The impact of HIV on Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteraemia in a South African population. AIDS 12(16), 2177–2184 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott JA, Hall AJ, Muyodi C et al. Aetiology, outcome, and risk factors for mortality among adults with acute pneumonia in Kenya. Lancet 355(9211), 1225–1230 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karstaedt AS, Khoosal M, Crewe-Brown HH. Pneumococcal bacteremia in adults in Soweto, South Africa, during the course of a decade. Clin. Infect. Dis. 33(5), 610–614 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jardim JR, Rico G, de la Roza C et al.; Grupo de Estudio Latinoamericano CAP. [A comparison of moxifloxacin and amoxicillin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in Latin America: results of a multicenter clinical trial]. Arch. Bronconeumol. 39(9), 387–393 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jokinen J, Scott JA. Estimating the proportion of pneumonia attributable to pneumococcus in Kenyan adults: latent class analysis. Epidemiology 21(5), 719–725 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albrich WC, Madhi SA, Adrian PV et al. Use of a rapid test of pneumococcal colonization density to diagnose pneumococcal pneumonia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 54(5), 601–609 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peltola VT, McCullers JA. Respiratory viruses predisposing to bacterial infections: role of neuraminidase. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 23(1 Suppl.), S87–S97 (2004).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCullers JA. Insights into the interaction between influenza virus and pneumococcus. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 19(3), 571–582 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Page KR, Scott AL, Manabe YC. The expanding realm of heterologous immunity: friend or foe? Cell. Microbiol. 8(2), 185–196 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunstein JD, Cline CL, McKinney S, Thomas E. Evidence from multiplex molecular assays for complex multipathogen interactions in acute respiratory infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46(1), 97–102 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madhi SA, Ludewick H, Kuwanda L et al. Pneumococcal co-infection with human metapneumovirus. J. Infect. Dis. 193(9), 1236–1243 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madhi SA, Klugman KP; Vaccine Trialist Group. A role for Streptococcus pneumoniae in virus-associated pneumonia. Nat. Med. 10(8), 811–813 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chien YW, Klugman KP, Morens DM. Bacterial pathogens and death during the 1918 influenza pandemic. N. Engl. J. Med. 361(26), 2582–2583 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loukides S, Panagou P, Kolokouris D, Kalogeropoulos N. Bacterial pneumonia as a suprainfection in young adults with measles. Eur. Respir. J. 13(2), 356–360 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Madhi SA, Levine OS, Hajjeh R, Mansoor OD, Cherian T. Vaccines to prevent pneumonia and improve child survival. Bull. World Health Organ. 86(5), 365–372 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiore AE, Iverson C, Messmer T et al. Outbreak of pneumonia in a long-term care facility: antecedent human parainfluenza virus 1 infection may predispose to bacterial pneumonia. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 46(9), 1112–1117 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wang YJ, Liu J, Fang F et al. [Microbiological etiology in children with community acquired pneumonia]. Zhongguo Dang Dai Er Ke Za Zhi 12(3), 184–187 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thorburn K, Harigopal S, Reddy V, Taylor N, van Saene HK. High incidence of pulmonary bacterial co-infection in children with severe respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) bronchiolitis. Thorax 61(7), 611–615 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kauppinen MT, Saikku P, Kujala P, Herva E, Syrjälä H. Clinical picture of community-acquired Chlamydia pneumoniae pneumonia requiring hospital treatment: a comparison between chlamydial and pneumococcal pneumonia. Thorax 51(2), 185–189 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore DP, Klugman KP, Madhi SA. Role of Streptococcus pneumoniae in hospitalization for acute community-acquired pneumonia associated with culture-confirmed Mycobacterium tuberculosis in children: a pneumococcal conjugate vaccine probe study. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 29(12), 1099–1004 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goulding J, Godlee A, Vekaria S, Hilty M, Snelgrove R, Hussell T. Lowering the threshold of lung innate immune cell activation alters susceptibility to secondary bacterial superinfection. J. Infect. Dis. 204(7), 1086–1094 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McCullers JA, Bartmess KC. Role of neuraminidase in lethal synergism between influenza virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae. J. Infect. Dis. 187(6), 1000–1009 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peltola VT, Murti KG, McCullers JA. Influenza virus neuraminidase contributes to secondary bacterial pneumonia. J. Infect. Dis. 192(2), 249–257 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pittet LA, Hall-Stoodley L, Rutkowski MR, Harmsen AG. Influenza virus infection decreases tracheal mucociliary velocity and clearance of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 42(4), 450–460 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCullers JA, Rehg JE. Lethal synergism between influenza virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae: characterization of a mouse model and the role of platelet-activating factor receptor. J. Infect. Dis. 186(3), 341–350 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNamee LA, Harmsen AG. Both influenza-induced neutrophil dysfunction and neutrophil-independent mechanisms contribute to increased susceptibility to a secondary Streptococcus pneumoniae infection. Infect. Immun. 74(12), 6707–6721 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun K, Metzger DW. Inhibition of pulmonary antibacterial defense by interferon-gamma during recovery from influenza infection. Nat. Med. 14(5), 558–564 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diavatopoulos DA, Short KR, Price JT et al. Influenza A virus facilitates Streptococcus pneumoniae transmission and disease. FASEB J. 24(6), 1789–1798 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nakamura S, Davis KM, Weiser JN. Synergistic stimulation of type I interferons during influenza virus co-infection promotes Streptococcus pneumoniae colonization in mice. J. Clin. Invest. 121(9), 3657–3665 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Short KR, Diavatopoulos DA, Reading PC et al. Using bioluminescent imaging to investigate synergism between Streptococcus pneumoniae and influenza A virus in infant mice. J. Vis. Exp. (50) pii: 2357 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Short KR, Diavatopoulos DA, Thornton R et al. Influenza virus induces bacterial and nonbacterial otitis media. J. Infect. Dis. 204(12), 1857–1865 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yondola MA, Fernandes F, Belicha-Villanueva A et al. Budding capability of the influenza virus neuraminidase can be modulated by tetherin. J. Virol. 85(6), 2480–2491 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Matrosovich MN, Matrosovich TY, Gray T, Roberts NA, Klenk HD. Neuraminidase is important for the initiation of influenza virus infection in human airway epithelium. J. Virol. 78(22), 12665–12667 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Compans RW, Dimmock NJ, Meier-Ewert H. Effect of antibody to neuraminidase on the maturation and hemagglutinating activity of an influenza A2 virus. J. Virol. 4(4), 528–534 (1969).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Air GM, Laver WG. The neuraminidase of influenza virus. Proteins 6(4), 341–356 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker D, Soong G, Planet P, Brower J, Ratner AJ, Prince A. The NanA neuraminidase of Streptococcus pneumoniae is involved in biofilm formation. Infect. Immun. 77(9), 3722–3730 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Didierlaurent A, Goulding J, Patel S et al. Sustained desensitization to bacterial Toll-like receptor ligands after resolution of respiratory influenza infection. J. Exp. Med. 205(2), 323–329 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hippenstiel S, Opitz B, Schmeck B, Suttorp N. Lung epithelium as a sentinel and effector system in pneumonia – molecular mechanisms of pathogen recognition and signal transduction. Respir. Res. 7, 97 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shahangian A, Chow EK, Tian X et al. Type I IFNs mediate development of postinfluenza bacterial pneumonia in mice. J. Clin. Invest. 119(7), 1910–1920 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senft AP, Taylor RH, Lei W et al. Respiratory syncytial virus impairs macrophage IFN-alpha/beta- and IFN-gamma-stimulated transcription by distinct mechanisms. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 42(4), 404–414 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hament JM, Aerts PC, Fleer A et al. Enhanced adherence of Streptococcus pneumoniae to human epithelial cells infected with respiratory syncytial virus. Pediatr. Res. 55(6), 972–978 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hament JM, Aerts PC, Fleer A et al. Direct binding of respiratory syncytial virus to pneumococci: a phenomenon that enhances both pneumococcal adherence to human epithelial cells and pneumococcal invasiveness in a murine model. Pediatr. Res. 58(6), 1198–1203 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avadhanula V, Wang Y, Portner A, Adderson E. Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae bind respiratory syncytial virus glycoprotein. J. Med. Microbiol. 56(Pt 9), 1133–1137 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stark JM, Stark MA, Colasurdo GN, LeVine AM. Decreased bacterial clearance from the lungs of mice following primary respiratory syncytial virus infection. J. Med. Virol. 78(6), 829–838 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Håkansson A, Kidd A, Wadell G, Sabharwal H, Svanborg C. Adenovirus infection enhances in vitro adherence of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Infect. Immun. 62(7), 2707–2714 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kukavica-Ibrulj I, Hamelin ME, Prince GA et al. Infection with human metapneumovirus predisposes mice to severe pneumococcal pneumonia. J. Virol. 83(3), 1341–1349 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alymova IV, Portner A, Takimoto T, Boyd KL, Babu YS, McCullers JA. The novel parainfluenza virus hemagglutinin–neuraminidase inhibitor BCX 2798 prevents lethal synergism between a paramyxovirus and Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49(1), 398–405 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Straker E, Hill AB, Lovell R. A study of the nasopharyngeal bacterial flora of different groups of persons observed in London and south-east England during the years 1930–1937. Ministry of Health Report No.90, Public Health and Medical Subjects, London (1939).
   Google Scholar
• Brimblecombe FS, Cruickshank R, Masters PL, Reid DD, Stewart GT. Family studies of respiratory infections. Br. Med. J. 1(5063), 119–128 (1958).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim PE, Musher DM, Glezen WP, Rodriguez-Barradas MC, Nahm WK, Wright CE. Association of invasive pneumococcal disease with season, atmospheric conditions, air pollution, and the isolation of respiratory viruses. Clin. Infect. Dis. 22(1), 100–106 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Talbot TR, Poehling KA, Hartert TV et al. Seasonality of invasive pneumococcal disease: temporal relation to documented influenza and respiratory syncytial viral circulation. Am. J. Med. 118(3), 285–291 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson M, Gilmour R, Menzies R, Ferson M, McIntyre P; New South Wales Pneumococcal Network. The association of respiratory viruses, temperature, and other climatic parameters with the incidence of invasive pneumococcal disease in Sydney, Australia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 42(2), 211–215 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Techasaensiri B, Techasaensiri C, Mejías A, McCracken GH Jr, Ramilo O. Viral co-infections in children with invasive pneumococcal disease. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 29(6), 519–523 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kuster SP, Tuite AR, Kwong JC, McGeer A, Fisman DN; Toronto Invasive Bacterial Diseases Network Investigators. Evaluation of coseasonality of influenza and invasive pneumococcal disease: results from prospective surveillance. PLoS Med. 8(6), e1001042 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grabowska K, Högberg L, Penttinen P, Svensson A, Ekdahl K. Occurrence of invasive pneumococcal disease and number of excess cases due to influenza. BMC Infect. Dis. 6, 58 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walter ND, Taylor TH, Shay DK et al.; Active Bacterial Core Surveillance Team. Influenza circulation and the burden of invasive pneumococcal pneumonia during a non-pandemic period in the United States. Clin. Infect. Dis. 50(2), 175–183 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray BM, Converse GM 3rd, Dillon HC Jr. Epidemiologic studies of Streptococcus pneumoniae in infants: acquisition, carriage, and infection during the first 24 months of life. J. Infect. Dis. 142(6), 923–933 (1980).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray BM, Turner ME, Dillon HC Jr. Epidemiologic studies of Streptococcus pneumoniae in infants. The effects of season and age on pneumococcal acquisition and carriage in the first 24 months of life. Am. J. Epidemiol. 116(4), 692–703 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Syrjänen RK, Auranen KJ, Leino TM, Kilpi TM, Mäkelä PH. Pneumococcal acute otitis media in relation to pneumococcal nasopharyngeal carriage. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 24(9), 801–806 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Claesson BA, Trollfors B, Brolin I et al. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in children based on antibody responses to bacterial and viral antigens. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 8(12), 856–862 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korppi M, Koskela M, Jalonen E, Leinonen M. Serologically indicated pneumococcal respiratory infection in children. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 24(4), 437–443 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gendrel D, Raymond J, Moulin F et al. Etiology and response to antibiotic therapy of community-acquired pneumonia in French children. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 16(5), 388–391 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heiskanen-Kosma T, Korppi M, Jokinen C et al. Etiology of childhood pneumonia: serologic results of a prospective, population-based study. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 17(11), 986–991 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wubbel L, Muniz L, Ahmed A et al. Etiology and treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in ambulatory children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 18(2), 98–104 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michelow IC, Olsen K, Lozano J et al. Epidemiology and clinical characteristics of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized children. Pediatrics 113(4), 701–707 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maxwell ES, Ward TG, Van Metre TE Jr. The relation of influenza virus and bacteria in the etiology of pneumonia. J. Clin. Invest. 28(2), 307–318 (1949).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieberman D, Schlaeffer F, Boldur I et al. Multiple pathogens in adult patients admitted with community-acquired pneumonia: a one year prospective study of 346 consecutive patients. Thorax 51(2), 179–184 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruiz M, Ewig S, Marcos MA et al. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia: impact of age, comorbidity, and severity. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 160(2), 397–405 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Roux A, Ewig S, García E et al. Mixed community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalised patients. Eur. Respir. J. 27(4), 795–800 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Camps Serra M, Cervera C, Pumarola T et al. Virological diagnosis in community-acquired pneumonia in immunocompromised patients. Eur. Respir. J. 31(3), 618–624 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jennings LC, Anderson TP, Beynon KA et al. Incidence and characteristics of viral community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Thorax 63(1), 42–48 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shibli F, Chazan B, Nitzan O et al. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized patients in northern Israel. Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 12(8), 477–482 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vu HT, Yoshida LM, Suzuki M et al. Association between nasopharyngeal load of Streptococcus pneumoniae, viral co-infection, and radiologically confirmed pneumonia in Vietnamese children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 30(1), 11–18 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cherian T, Mulholland EK, Carlin JB et al. Standardized interpretation of paediatric chest radiographs for the diagnosis of pneumonia in epidemiological studies. Bull. World Health Organ. 83(5), 353–359 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• No authors listed. Case definitions for pneumococcal syndromes and other severe bacterial infections. Clin. Infect. Dis. 48(Suppl. 2), S197–S202 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Yu D, Wei L, Zhengxiu L et al. Impact of bacterial colonization on the severity, and accompanying airway inflammation, of virus-induced wheezing in children. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 16(9), 1399–1404 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jartti T, Kuneinen S, Lehtinen P et al. Nasopharyngeal bacterial colonization during the first wheezing episode is associated with longer duration of hospitalization and higher risk of relapse in young children. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 30(2), 233–241 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schwarzmann SW, Adler JL, Sullivan RJ Jr, Marine WM. Bacterial pneumonia during the Hong Kong influenza epidemic of 1968–1969. Arch. Intern. Med. 127(6), 1037–1041 (1971).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• O’Brien KL, Walters MI, Sellman J et al. Severe pneumococcal pneumonia in previously healthy children: the role of preceding influenza infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30(5), 784–789 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palacios G, Hornig M, Cisterna D et al. Streptococcus pneumoniae co-infection is correlated with the severity of H1N1 pandemic influenza. PLoS ONE 4(12), e8540 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberger DM, Simonsen L, Jordan R, Steiner C, Miller M, Viboud C. Impact of the 2009 influenza pandemic on pneumococcal pneumonia hospitalizations in the United States. J. Infect. Dis. 205(3), 458–465 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brundage JF, Shanks GD. Deaths from bacterial pneumonia during 1918–19 influenza pandemic. Emerging Infect. Dis. 14(8), 1193–1199 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morens DM, Taubenberger JK, Fauci AS. Predominant role of bacterial pneumonia as a cause of death in pandemic influenza: implications for pandemic influenza preparedness. J. Infect. Dis. 198(7), 962–970 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klugman KP, Madhi SA. Pneumococcal vaccines and flu preparedness. Science 316(5821), 49–50 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Klugman KP, Astley CM, Lipsitch M. Time from illness onset to death, 1918 influenza and pneumococcal pneumonia. Emerging Infect. Dis. 15(2), 346–347 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mills CE, Robins JM, Lipsitch M. Transmissibility of 1918 pandemic influenza. Nature 432(7019), 904–906 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tilghman RC, Finland M. Clinical significance of bacteremia in pneumococcic pneumonia. Arch. Intern. Med. 59(4), 602–619 (1937).
   Google Scholar
• Oswald NC, Shooter RA, Curwen MP. Pneumonia complicating Asian influenza. Br. Med. J. 2(5108), 1305–1311 (1958).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Robertson L, Caley JP, Moore J. Importance of Staphylococcus aureus in pneumonia in the 1957 epidemic of influenza A. Lancet 2(7040), 233–236 (1958).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chien YW, Levin BR, Klugman KP. The anticipated severity of a ‘1918-like’ influenza pandemic in contemporary populations: the contribution of antibacterial interventions. PLoS ONE 7(1), e29219 (2012).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Surveillance for pediatric deaths associated with 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus infection – United States, April–August 2009. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 58(34), 941–947 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Bacterial co-infections in lung tissue specimens from fatal cases of 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) – United States, May–August 2009. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 58(38), 1071–1074 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Gill JR, Sheng ZM, Ely SF et al. Pulmonary pathologic findings of fatal 2009 pandemic influenza A/H1N1 viral infections. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 134(2), 235–243 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mauad T, Hajjar LA, Callegari GD et al. Lung pathology in fatal novel human influenza A (H1N1) infection. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 181(1), 72–79 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shieh WJ, Blau DM, Denison AM et al. 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1): pathology and pathogenesis of 100 fatal cases in the United States. Am. J. Pathol. 177(1), 166–175 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bai L, Cao B, Wang C. Influenza A pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus infection. Chin. Med. J. 124(20), 3399–3402 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pettigrew MM, Gent JF, Pyles RB, Miller AL, Nokso-Koivisto J, Chonmaitree T. Viral–bacterial interactions and risk of acute otitis media complicating upper respiratory tract infection. J. Clin. Microbiol. 49(11), 3750–3755 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Titus MO, Wright SW. Prevalence of serious bacterial infections in febrile infants with respiratory syncytial virus infection. Pediatrics 112(2), 282–284 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bloomfield P, Dalton D, Karleka A, Kesson A, Duncan G, Isaacs D. Bacteraemia and antibiotic use in respiratory syncytial virus infections. Arch. Dis. Child. 89(4), 363–367 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Duttweiler L, Nadal D, Frey B. Pulmonary and systemic bacterial co-infections in severe RSV bronchiolitis. Arch. Dis. Child. 89(12), 1155–1157 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Purcell K, Fergie J. Concurrent serious bacterial infections in 912 infants and children hospitalized for treatment of respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory tract infection. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 23(3), 267–269 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Resch B, Gusenleitner W, Mueller WD. Risk of concurrent bacterial infection in preterm infants hospitalized due to respiratory syncytial virus infection. Acta Paediatr. 96(4), 495–498 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Randolph AG, Reder L, Englund JA. Risk of bacterial infection in previously healthy respiratory syncytial virus-infected young children admitted to the intensive care unit. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 23(11), 990–994 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• No authors listed. Pneumonia in childhood. Lancet 1(8588), 741–743 (1988).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hishiki H, Ishiwada N, Fukasawa C et al. Incidence of bacterial co-infection with respiratory syncytial virus bronchopulmonary infection in pediatric inpatients. J. Infect. Chemother. 17(1), 87–90 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stensballe LG, Hjuler T, Andersen A et al. Hospitalization for respiratory syncytial virus infection and invasive pneumococcal disease in Danish children aged <2 years: a population-based cohort study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 46(8), 1165–1171 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Black S, Shinefield H, Fireman B et al. Efficacy, safety and immunogenicity of heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in children. Northern California Kaiser Permanente Vaccine Study Center Group. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 19(3), 187–195 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klugman KP, Madhi SA, Huebner RE, Kohberger R, Mbelle N, Pierce N; Vaccine Trialists Group. A trial of a 9-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in children with and those without HIV infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 349(14), 1341–1348 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cutts FT, Zaman SM, Enwere G et al.; Gambian Pneumococcal Vaccine Trial Group. Efficacy of nine-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine against pneumonia and invasive pneumococcal disease in The Gambia: randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 365(9465), 1139–1146 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Black SB, Shinefield HR, Ling S et al. Effectiveness of heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in children younger than five years of age for prevention of pneumonia. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 21(9), 810–815 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen J, Black S, Shinefield H et al. Effectiveness of heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in children younger than 5 years of age for prevention of pneumonia: updated analysis using World Health Organization standardized interpretation of chest radiographs. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 25(9), 779–781 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madhi SA, Kuwanda L, Cutland C, Klugman KP. The impact of a 9-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on the public health burden of pneumonia in HIV-infected and -uninfected children. Clin. Infect. Dis. 40(10), 1511–1518 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucero MG, Nohynek H, Williams G et al. Efficacy of an 11-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine against radiologically confirmed pneumonia among children less than 2 years of age in the Philippines: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 28(6), 455–462 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tregnaghi MW, Sáez-Llorenz X, López P et al. Evaluating the efficacy of 10-valent pneumococcal non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae protein-D conjugate vaccine (PHID-CV) against community-acquired pneumonia in Latin America. Presented at: The 29th Annual Meeting of the European Society for Paediatric Infectious Diseases. The Hague, The Netherlands, 7–11 June 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Theodoratou E, Johnson S, Jhass A et al. The effect of Haemophilus influenzae type B and pneumococcal conjugate vaccines on childhood pneumonia incidence, severe morbidity and mortality. Int. J. Epidemiol. 39(Suppl. 1), i172–i185 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Simonsen L, Taylor RJ, Young-Xu Y, Haber M, May L, Klugman KP. Impact of pneumococcal conjugate vaccination of infants on pneumonia and influenza hospitalization and mortality in all age groups in the United States. MBio 2(1), e00309–e00310 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Wals P, Robin E, Fortin E, Thibeault R, Ouakki M, Douville-Fradet M. Pneumonia after implementation of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine program in the province of Quebec, Canada. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 27(11), 963–968 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grijalva CG, Nuorti JP, Arbogast PG, Martin SW, Edwards KM, Griffin MR. Decline in pneumonia admissions after routine childhood immunisation with pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in the USA: a time-series analysis. Lancet 369(9568), 1179–1186 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou F, Kyaw MH, Shefer A, Winston CA, Nuorti JP. Health care utilization for pneumonia in young children after routine pneumococcal conjugate vaccine use in the United States. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 161(12), 1162–1168 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson JC, Jackson M, Yu O et al. Impact of the introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on rates of community acquired pneumonia in children and adults. Vaccine 26(38), 4947–4954 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee GE, Lorch SA, Sheffler-Collins S, Kronman MP, Shah SS. National hospitalization trends for pediatric pneumonia and associated complications. Pediatrics 126(2), 204–213 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durando P, Crovari P, Ansaldi F et al.; Collaborative Group for Pneumococcal Vaccination in Liguria. Universal childhood immunisation against Streptococcus pneumoniae: the five-year experience of Liguria Region, Italy. Vaccine 27(25–26), 3459–3462 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patrzalek M, Albrecht P, Sobczynski M. Significant decline in pneumonia admission rate after the introduction of routine 2+1 dose schedule heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) in children under 5 years of age in Kielce, Poland. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 29(7), 787–792 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koshy E, Murray J, Bottle A, Sharland M, Saxena S. Impact of the seven-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccination (PCV7) programme on childhood hospital admissions for bacterial pneumonia and empyema in England: national time-trends study, 1997–2008. Thorax 65(9), 770–774 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jardine A, Menzies RI, McIntyre PB. Reduction in hospitalizations for pneumonia associated with the introduction of a pneumococcal conjugate vaccination schedule without a booster dose in Australia. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 29(7), 607–612 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pírez MC, Algorta G, Cedrés A et al. Impact of universal pneumococcal vaccination on hospitalizations for pneumonia and meningitis in children in Montevideo, Uruguay. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 30(8), 669–674 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knoll MD, Moïsi JC, Muhib FB et al.; PneumoADIP-Sponsored Surveillance Investigators. Standardizing surveillance of pneumococcal disease. Clin. Infect. Dis. 48(Suppl. 2), S37–S48 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Metersky ML, Ma A, Bratzler DW, Houck PM. Predicting bacteremia in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 169(3), 342–347 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulholland EK. Use of vaccine trials to estimate burden of disease. J. Health. Popul. Nutr. 22(3), 257–267 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Domenech A, Ardanuy C, Calatayud L et al. Serotypes and genotypes of Streptococcus pneumoniae causing pneumonia and acute exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 66(3), 487–493 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Pneumococcal disease. In: Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases. Atkinson W, Wolfe C, Hamborsky J (Eds). Public Health Foundation, DC, USA, 233–246 (2011).
   Google Scholar
• Dagan R, Sikuler-Cohen M, Zamir O, Janco J, Givon-Lavi N, Fraser D. Effect of a conjugate pneumococcal vaccine on the occurrence of respiratory infections and antibiotic use in day-care center attendees. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 20(10), 951–958 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Pneumonia hospitalizations among young children before and after introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine – United States, 1997–2006. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 58(1), 1–4 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Pilishvili T, Lexau C, Farley MM et al.; Active Bacterial Core Surveillance/Emerging Infections Program Network. Sustained reductions in invasive pneumococcal disease in the era of conjugate vaccine. J. Infect. Dis. 201(1), 32–41 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simonsen L, Clarke MJ, Williamson GD, Stroup DF, Arden NH, Schonberger LB. The impact of influenza epidemics on mortality: introducing a severity index. Am. J. Public Health 87(12), 1944–1950 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein E, Cobey S, Takahashi S, Miller JC, Lipsitch M. Predicting the epidemic sizes of influenza A/H1N1, A/H3N2, and B: a statistical method. PLoS Med. 8(7), e1001051 (2011).
   Google Scholar
• Kronman MP, Hersh AL, Feng R, Huang YS, Lee GE, Shah SS. Ambulatory visit rates and antibiotic prescribing for children with pneumonia, 1994–2007. Pediatrics 127(3), 411–418 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grijalva CG, Poehling KA, Nuorti JP et al. National impact of universal childhood immunization with pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on outpatient medical care visits in the United States. Pediatrics 118(3), 865–873 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hazir T, Nisar YB, Abbasi S et al. Comparison of oral amoxicillin with placebo for the treatment of world health organization-defined nonsevere pneumonia in children aged 2–59 months: a multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial in Pakistan. Clin. Infect. Dis. 52(3), 293–300 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Block SL, Heikkinen T, Toback SL, Zheng W, Ambrose CS. The efficacy of live attenuated influenza vaccine against influenza-associated acute otitis media in children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 30(3), 203–207 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heikkinen T, Ruuskanen O, Waris M, Ziegler T, Arola M, Halonen P. Influenza vaccination in the prevention of acute otitis media in children. Am. J. Dis. Child. 145(4), 445–448 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Clements DA, Langdon L, Bland C, Walter E. Influenza A vaccine decreases the incidence of otitis media in 6- to 30-month-old children in day care. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 149(10), 1113–1117 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ozgur SK, Beyazova U, Kemaloglu YK et al. Effectiveness of inactivated influenza vaccine for prevention of otitis media in children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 25(5), 401–404 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Huber VC, Peltola V, Iverson AR, McCullers JA. Contribution of vaccine-induced immunity toward either the HA or the NA component of influenza viruses limits secondary bacterial complications. J. Virol. 84(8), 4105–4108 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Miyake T, Soda K, Itoh Y et al. Amelioration of pneumonia with Streptococcus pneumoniae infection by inoculation with a vaccine against highly pathogenic avian influenza virus in a non-human primate mixed infection model. J. Med. Primatol. 39(1), 58–70 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Szilagyi PG, Fairbrother G, Griffin MR et al.; New Vaccine Surveillance Network. Influenza vaccine effectiveness among children 6 to 59 months of age during 2 influenza seasons: a case–cohort study. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 162(10), 943–951 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Beran J, Wertzova V, Honegr K et al. Challenge of conducting a placebo-controlled randomized efficacy study for influenza vaccine in a season with low attack rate and a mismatched vaccine B strain: a concrete example. BMC Infect. Dis. 9, 2 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katayose M, Hosoya M, Haneda T et al. The effectiveness of trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine in children over six consecutive influenza seasons. Vaccine 29(9), 1844–1849 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winterstein AG, Hampp C, Saidi A. Effectiveness of palivizumab prophylaxis in infants and children in Florida. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf. 21(1), 53–60 (2012).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Veirum JE, Sodemann M, Biai S et al. Routine vaccinations associated with divergent effects on female and male mortality at the paediatric ward in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. Vaccine 23(9), 1197–1204 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spaude KA, Abrutyn E, Kirchner C, Kim A, Daley J, Fisman DN. Influenza vaccination and risk of mortality among adults hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. Arch. Intern. Med. 167(1), 53–59 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Blay A, Bessler H, Lahad A, Waitman DA, Djaldetti M. Does pneumococcal vaccine reduce influenza morbidity in humans? Vaccine 25(6), 1071–1075 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chien YW, Klugman KP, Morens DM. Efficacy of whole-cell killed bacterial vaccines in preventing pneumonia and death during the 1918 influenza pandemic. J. Infect. Dis. 202(11), 1639–1648 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowe S, Utley M, Walker G, Grove P, Pagel C. A model to evaluate mass vaccination against pneumococcus as a countermeasure against pandemic influenza. Vaccine 29(31), 5065–5077 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rothberg MB, Haessler SD. Complications of seasonal and pandemic influenza. Crit. Care Med. 38(4 Suppl.), e91–e97 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammitt LL, Bruden DL, Butler JC et al. Indirect effect of conjugate vaccine on adult carriage of Streptococcus pneumoniae: an explanation of trends in invasive pneumococcal disease. J. Infect. Dis. 193(11), 1487–1494 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Millar EV, Watt JP, Bronsdon MA et al. Indirect effect of 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on pneumococcal colonization among unvaccinated household members. Clin. Infect. Dis. 47(8), 989–996 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flasche S, Van Hoek AJ, Sheasby E et al. Effect of pneumococcal conjugate vaccination on serotype-specific carriage and invasive disease in England: a cross-sectional study. PLoS Med. 8(4), e1001017 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roca A, Hill PC, Townend J et al. Effects of community-wide vaccination with PCV-7 on pneumococcal nasopharyngeal carriage in the Gambia: a cluster-randomized trial. PLoS Med. 8(10), e1001107 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin JL, McGarry LJ, Klugman KP, Strutton DR, Gilmore KE, Weinstein MC. Public health and economic impact of vaccination with 7-valent pneumococcal vaccine (PCV7) in the context of the annual influenza epidemic and a severe influenza pandemic. BMC Infect. Dis. 10, 14 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johnson HL, Deloria-Knoll M, Levine OS et al. Systematic evaluation of serotypes causing invasive pneumococcal disease among children under five: the pneumococcal global serotype project. PLoS Med. 7(10), pii: e1000348 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar