Variations in the sleep–wake cycle from childhood to adulthood: chronobiological perspectives

References

• Coons S, Guilleminault C. Development of consolidated sleep and wakeful periods in relation to the day/night cycle in infancy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1984;26:169–176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iglowstein I, Jenni OG, Molinari L, Largo RH. Sleep duration from infancy to adolescence: reference values and generational trends. Pediatrics. 2003;111(2):302–307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seo WS, Sung HM, Lee JH, et al. Sleep patterns and their age-related changes in elementary-school children. Sleep Med Rev. 2010; 11(6):569–575.
   Google Scholar
• Galland BC, Taylor BJ, Elder DE, Herbison P. Normal sleep patterns in infants and children: a systematic review of observational studies. Sleep Med Rev. 2012;16(3):213–222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olds T, Blunden S, Petkov J, Forchino F. The relationships between sex, age, geography and time in bed in adolescents: a meta-analysis of data from 23 countries. Sleep Med Rev. 2010;14(6):371–378.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohayon MM, Roberts RE, Zulley J, Smirne S, Priest RG. Prevalence and patterns of problematic sleep among older adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39(12):1549–1556.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorleifsdottir B, Bjomsson JK, Benediktsdottir B, Gislason T, Kristbjarnarson H. Sleep and sleep habits from childhood to young adulthood over a 10-year period. J Psychosom Res. 2002;53:529–537.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gau S, Soong W. The transition of sleep–wake patterns in early adolescence. Sleep. 2003;26(4):449–454.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shinkoda H, Matsumoto K, Park YM, Nagashima H. Sleep–wake habits of schoolchildren according to grade. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2000;54:287–289.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Díaz-Morales JF, Sorroche MG. Morningness–eveningness in adolescents. Span J Psychol. 2008;11(1):201–206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tonetti L, Fabbri M, Natale V. Sex difference in sleep-time preference and sleep need: a cross-sectional survey among Italian pre-adolescents, adolescents, and adults. Chronobiol Int. 2008;25(5): 745–759.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim S, Dueker GL, Hasher L, Goldstein D. Children’s time of day preference: age, gender and ethnic differences. Pers Individ Differ. 2002;33:1083–1090.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roenneberg T, Kuehnle T, Pramstaller PP, et al. A marker for the end of adolescence. Curr Biol. 2004;14(24):R1038–R1039.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Randler C. Age and gender differences in morningness–eveningness during adolescence. J Genet Psychol. 2011;172(3):302–308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ko CH, Takahashi JS. Molecular components of the mammalian circadian clock. Hum Mol Genet. 2006;15 Spec No 2:R271–R277.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalsbeek A, Scheer FA, Perreau-Lenz S, et al. Circadian disruption and SCN control of energy metabolism. FEBS Lett. 2011;585(10): 1412–1426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albrecht U, Eichele G. The mammalian circadian clock. Curr Opin Genet Dev. 2003;13(3):271–277.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schibler U. The daily timing of gene expression and physiology in mammals. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. 2007;9(3):257–272.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saper CB. The central circadian timing system. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2013;23(5):747–751.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagenauer MH, Lee TM. Adolescent sleep patterns in humans and laboratory animals. Horm. Behav. 2013;64(2):270–279.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cajochen C, Krauchi K, Wirz-Justice A. Role of melatonin in the regulation of human circadian rhythms and sleep. J Neuroendocrinol. 2003;15:432–437.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Attanasio A, Rager K, Gupta D. Ontogeny of circadian rhythmicity for melatonin, serotonin, and N-acetylserotonin in humans. J Pineal Res. 1986;3:251–256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ardura J, Gutierrez R, Andres J, Agapito T. Emergence and evolution of the circadian rhythm of melatonin in children. Horm Res. 2005; 59(2):66–72.
   Google Scholar
• Kennaway DJ, Goble FC, Stamp GE. Factors influencing the development of melatonin rhythmicity in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81(4):1525–1532.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennaway DJ, Stamp GE, Goble FC. Development of melatonin production in infants and the impact of prematurity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1992;75(2):367–369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iguchi H, Kato K-I, Ibayashi H. Age-dependent reduction in serum melatonin concentrations in healthy human subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1982;55(1):27–29.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Attanasio A, Borrelli P, Gupta D. Circadian rhythms in serum melatonin from infancy to adolescence. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1985;61(2):388–390.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Commentz JC, Uhlig H, Henke A, Hellwege HH, Willig RP. Melatonin and 6-hydroxymelatonin sulfate excretion is inversely correlated with gonadal development in children. Horm Res. 1997;47(3):97–101.
   Google Scholar
• Carskadon MA, Acebo C, Richardson GS, Tate BA, Seifer R. An approach to studying circadian rhythms of adolescent humans. J Biol Rhythms. 1997;12(3):278–289.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gradisar M, Gardner G, Dohnt H. Recent worldwide sleep patterns and problems during adolescence: a review and meta-analysis of age, region, and sleep. Sleep Med Rev. 2011;12(2):110–118.
   Google Scholar
• Eckerberg B, Lowden A, Nagai R, Akerstedt T. Melatonin treatment effects on adolescent students’ sleep timing and sleepiness in a placebo-controlled crossover study. Chronobiol Int. 2012;29(9): 1239–1248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watamura SE, Donzella B, Kertes DA, Gunnar MR. Developmental changes in baseline cortisol activity in early childhood: relations with napping and effortful control. Dev Psychobiol. 2004;45(3): 125–133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pruessner JC, Wolf OT, Hellhammer DH, et al. Free cortisol levels after awakening: a reliable biological marker for the assessment of adrenocortical activity. Life Sci. 1997;61(26):2539–2549.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Weerth C, Zijl RH, Buitelaar JK. Development of cortisol circadian rhythm in infancy. Early Hum Dev. 2003;73(1–2):39–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spangler G. The emergence of adrenocortical circadian function in newborns and infants and its relationship to sleep, feeding and maternal adrenocortical activity. Early Hum Dev. 1991;25:197–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Onishi S, Miyazawa G, Nishimura Y, et al. Postnatal development of circadian rhythm in serum cortisol levels in children. Pediatrics. 1983;72(3):399–404.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shirtcliff EA, Allison AL, Armstrong JM, Slattery MJ, Kalin NH, Essex MJ. Longitudinal stability and developmental properties of salivary cortisol levels and circadian rhythms from childhood to adolescence. Dev Psychobiol. 2012;54(5):493–502.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiess W, Meidert A, Dressendorfer RA, et al. Salivary cortisol levels throughout childhood and adolescence: relation with age, pubertal stage, and weight. Pediatr Res. 1995;37(4):502–506.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Netherton C. Salivary cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone in relation to puberty and gender. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2004;29(2): 125–140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oskis A, Loveday C, Hucklebridge F, Thorn L, Clow A. Diurnal patterns of salivary cortisol across the adolescent period in healthy females. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2009;34(3):307–316.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeiders KH, Doane LD, Adam EK. Reciprocal relations between objectively measured sleep patterns and diurnal cortisol rhythms in late adolescence. J Adolesc Health. 2011;48(6):566–571.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abe K, Sasaki H, Takebayashi K, Fukui S, Nambu H. The development of circadian rhythm of human body temperature. J Interdiscipl Cycle Res. 1978;9(3):211–216.
   Google Scholar
• Wailoo MP, Petersen SA, Whittaker H, Goodenough P. Sleeping body temperatures in 3–4 month old infants. Arch Dis Child. 1989;64:596–599.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glotzbach SF, Edgar DM, Boeddiker M, Ariagno RL. Biological rhythmicity in normal infants during the first 3 months of life. Paediatrics. 1994;94(4):482–488.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lodemore M, Petersen SA, Wailoo MP. Development of night time temperature rhythms over the first six months of life. Arch Dis Child. 1991;66:521–524.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baehr EK, Revelle W, Eastman CI. Individual differences in the phase and amplitude of the human circadian temperature rhythm: with an emphasis on morningness–eveningness. J Sleep Res. 2000;9:117–127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrade MM, Benedito-Silva AA, Menna-Barreto L. Correlations between morningness–eveningness character, sleep habits and temperature rhythm in adolescents. Braz J Med Biol Res. 1992;25(8): 835–839.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carrier J, Paquet J, Morettini J, Touchette E. Phase advance of sleep and temperature circadian rhythms in the middle years of life in humans. Neurosci Lett. 2002;320:1–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ishihara K. Development of body temperature rhythm: 6 years follow up of three cases. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2001;55:229–230.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sadeh A, Dahl RE, Shahar G, Rosenblat-Stein S. Sleep and the transition to adolescence: a longitudinal study. Sleep. 2009;32(12):1602–1609.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagenauer MH, Lee TM. The neuroendocrine control of the circadian system: adolescent chronotype. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2012; 33(3):211–229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carskadon MA, Vieira C, Acebo C. Association between puberty and delayed phase preference. Sleep. 1993;16(3):258–262.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Randler C, Ebenhoh N, Fischer A, et al. Chronotype but not sleep length is related to salivary testosterone in young adult men. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2012;37(10):1740–1744.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carskadon MA, Labyak SE, Acebo C, Seifer R. Intrinsic circadian period of adolescent humans measured in conditions of forced desynchrony. Neurosci Lett. 1999;260:129–132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagenauer MH, Perryman JI, Lee TM, Carskadon MA. Adolescent changes in the homeostatic and circadian regulation of sleep. Dev Neurosci. 2009;31(4):276–284.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenni OG, Achermann P, Carskadon MA. Homeostatic sleep regulation in adolescents. Sleep. 2005;28(11):1446–1454.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips AJ, Chen PY, Robinson PA. Probing the mechanisms of chronotype using quantitative modeling. J Biol Rhythms. 2010;25(3): 217–227.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duffy JF, Wright KP Jr. Entrainment of the human circadian system by light. J Biol Rhythms. 2005;20(4):326–338.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boivin DB, Duffy JF, Kronauer RE, Czeisler CA. Dose–response relationships for resetting of human circadian clock by light. Nature. 1996;379:540–541.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roenneberg T, Daan S, Merrow M. The art of entrainment. J Biol Rhythms. 2003;18(3):183–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goulet G, Mongrain V, Desrosiers C, Paquet J, Dumont M. Daily light exposure in morning-type and evening-type individuals. J Biol Rhythms. 2007;22(2):151–158.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vollmer C, Michel U, Randler C. Outdoor light at night (LAN) is correlated with eveningness in adolescents. Chronobiol Int. 2012; 29(4):502–508.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peixoto CA, da Silva AG, Carskadon MA, Louzada FM. Adolescents living in homes without electric lighting have earlier sleep times. Behav Sleep Med. 2009;7(2):73–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen M, Janssen I, Schiff A, Zee PC, Dubocovich ML. The impact of school daily schedule on adolescent sleep. Pediatrics. 2005;115(6): 1555–1561.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang CK, Kim JK, Patel SR, Lee JH. Age-related changes in sleep/wake patterns among Korean teenagers. Pediatrics. 2005; 115(1 Suppl):250–256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cain N, Gradisar M. Electronic media use and sleep in school-aged children and adolescents: a review. Sleep Med Rev. 2010;11(8): 735–742.
   Google Scholar
• Gamble AL, D’Rozario AL, Bartlett DJ, et al. Adolescent sleep patterns and night-time technology use: results of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation’s big sleep survey. PLoS One. 2014;9(11):e111700.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Short MA, Gradisar M, Wright H, Lack LC, Dohnt H, Carskadon MA. Time for bed: parent-set bedtimes associated with improved sleep and daytime functioning in adolescents. Sleep. 2011;34(6):797–800.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vinha D, Cavalcante JA, Andrade MMM. Sleep–wake patterns of student workers and non-workers. Biol Rhythm Res. 2002;33(4): 417–426.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teixeira LR, Fischer FM, Nagai R, Turte SL. Teen at work: the burden of a double shift on daily activities. Chronobiol Int. 2004;21(6): 845–858.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer FM, Nagai R, Teixeira LR. Explaining sleep duration in adolescents: the impact of socio-demographic and lifestyle factors and working status. Chronobiol Int. 2008;25(2–3):359–372.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adan A, Archer SN, Hidalgo MP, Di Milia L, Natale V, Randler C. Circadian typology: a comprehensive review. Chronobiol Int. 2012; 29(9):1153–1175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kantermann T, Juda M, Merrow M, Roenneberg T. The human circadian clock’s seasonal adjustment is disrupted by daylight saving time. Curr Biol. 2007;17(22):1996–2000.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu X, Zhao Z, Jia C, Buysse DJ. Sleep patterns and problems among chinese adolescents. Pediatrics. 2008;121(6):1165–1173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anders TF, Carskadon MA, Dement WC, Harvey K. Sleep habits of children and the identification of pathologically sleepy children. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 1978;9(1):56–63.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA, Guilleminault C, Vitiello MV. Meta-analysis of quantitative sleep parameters from childhood to old age in healthy individuals: developing normative sleep values across the human lifespan. Sleep. 2004;27(7):1255–1273.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olds T, Maher C, Blunden S, Matricciana L. Normative data on the sleep habits of Australian children and adolescents. Sleep. 2010;33(10): 1381–1388.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knutson K, Lauderdale DS. Sociodemographic and behavioral predictors of bed time and wake time among US adolescents aged 15 to 17 years. J Pediatr. 2009;154:426–430.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russo PM, Bruni O, Lucidi F, Ferri R, Violani C. Sleep habits and circadian preference in Italian children and adolescents. J Sleep Res. 2007;16:163–169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowley SJ, Carskadon MA. Modifications to weekend recovery sleep delay circadian phase in older adolescents. Chronobiol Int. 2010;27(7):1469–1492.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laberge L, Petit D, Simard C, Vitaro F, Tremblay RE. Development of sleep patterns in early adolescence. J Sleep Res. 2001;10:59–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szymczak JT, Jasinska M, Pawlak E, Zwierzykowska M. Annual and weekly changes in the sleep–wake rhythm of school children. Sleep. 1993;16(5):433–435.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell IG, Higgins LM, Trinidad JM, Richardson P, Feinberg I. The increase in longitudinally measured sleepiness across adolescence is related to the maturational decline in low-frequency EEG power. Sleep. 2007;30(12):1677–1687.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giannotti F, Cortesi F, Sebastiani T, Ottaviano S. Circadian preference, sleep and daytime behaviour in adolescence. J Sleep Res. 2002;11:191–199.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibson ES, Powles AC, Thabane L, et al. “Sleepiness” is serious in adolescence: two surveys of 3235 Canadian students. BMC Public Health. 2006;6:116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carskadon MA, Harvey K, Duke P, Anders TF, Litt IF, Dement WC. Pubertal changes in daytime sleepiness. Sleep. 1980;2(4):453–460.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carskadon MA, Orav EJ, Dement WC. Evolution of sleep and daytime sleepiness in adolescents. In: Guilleminault C, Lugaresi E, editors. Sleep/Wake Disorders: Natural History, Epidemiology, and Long-term Evolution. New York: Raven Press; 1983:201–216.
   Google Scholar
• Park YM, Matsumoto K, Seo YS, Kang MJ, Nagashima H. Changes of sleep or waking habits by age and sex in Japanese. Percept Mot Skills. 2002;94:1199–1213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roenneberg T, Kuehnle T, Juda M, et al. Epidemiology of the human circadian clock. Sleep Med Rev. 2007;11(6):429–438.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roenneberg T, Wirz-Justice A, Merrow M. Life between clocks: daily temporal patterns of human chronotypes. J Biol Rhythms. 2003;18(1):80–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron KG, Reid KJ. Circadian misalignment and health. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2014;26(2):139–154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waterhouse J, Reilly T, Atkinson G, Edwards B. Jet lag: trends and coping strategies. Lancet. 2007;369(9567):1117–1129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haraszti RA, Ella K, Gyongyosi N, Roenneberg T, Kaldi K. Social jetlag negatively correlates with academic performance in undergraduates. Chronobiol Int. 2014;31(5):603–612.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfson AR, Carskadon MA. Sleep schedules and daytime functioning in adolescents. Child Dev. 1998;69(4):875–887.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asarnow LD, McGlinchey E, Harvey AG. The effects of bedtime and sleep duration on academic and emotional outcomes in a nationally representative sample of adolescents. J Adolesc Health. 2014;54(3): 350–356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien EM, Mindell JA. Sleep and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. Behav Sleep Med. 2005;3(3):113–133.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dewald-Kaufmann JF, Oort FJ, Meijer AM. The effects of sleep extension on sleep and cognitive performance in adolescents with chronic sleep reduction: an experimental study. Sleep Med Rev. 2013;14(6):510–517.
   Google Scholar
• Preckel F, Lipnevich AA, Schneider S, Roberts RD. Chronotype, cognitive abilities, and academic achievement: a meta-analytic investigation. Learn Individ Differ. 2011;21(5):483–492.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Díaz-Morales JF, Escribano C. Predicting school achievement: the role of inductive reasoning, sleep length and morningness–eveningness. Pers Individ Differ. 2013;55(2):106–111.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cassoff J, Knauper B, Michaelsen S, Gruber R. School-based sleep promotion programs: effectiveness, feasibility and insights for future research. Sleep Med Rev. 2013;17(3):207–214.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owens JA, Belon K, Moss P. Impact of delaying school start time on adolescent sleep, mood, and behavior. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2010;164(7):608–614.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wahlstrom K. Changing times: findings from the first longitudinal study of later high school start times. NASSP Bull. 2002;86(633): 3–21.
   Google Scholar
• Duncan SC, Duncan TE, Strycker LA, Chaumeton NR. A cohort-sequential latent growth model of physical activity from ages 12 to 17 years. Ann Behav Med. 2007;33(1):80–89.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Findlay LC, Garner RE, Kohen DE. Children’s organized physical activity patterns from childhood into adolescence. J Phys Act Health. 2009;6:708–715.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Troiano RP, Berrigan D, Dodd KW, Masse LC, Tilert T, McDowell M. Physical activity in the United States measured by accelerometer. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40(1):181–188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arundell L, Ridgers ND, Veitch J, Salmon J, Hinkley T, Timperio A. 5-Year changes in afterschool physical activity and sedentary behavior. Am J Prev Med. 2013;44(6):605–611.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klinker CD, Schipperijn J, Christian H, Kerr J, Ersboll AK, Troelsen J. Using accelerometers and global positioning system devices to assess gender and age differences in children’s school, transport, leisure and home based physical activity. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2014;11:8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nader PR, Bradley RH, Houts RM, McRitchie SL, O’Brien M. Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity from ages 9 to 15 years. JAMA. 2008;300(3):295–305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon-Larsen P, Nelson MC, Popkin BM. Longitudinal physical activity and sedentary behavior trends: adolescence to adulthood. Am J Prev Med. 2004;27(4):277–283.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardy LL, Dobbins TA, Denney-Wilson EA, Okely AD, Booth ML. Sedentariness, small-screen recreation, and fitness in youth. Am J Prev Med. 2009;36(2):120–125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwardson CL, Gorely T, Davies MJ, et al. Association of sedentary behaviour with metabolic syndrome: a meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2012;7(4):e34916.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nocon M, Hiemann T, Muller-Riemenschneider F, Thalau F, Roll S, Willich SN. Association of physical activity with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 2008;15(3):239–246.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilmot EG, Edwardson CL, Achana FA, et al. Sedentary time in adults and the association with diabetes, cardiovascular disease and death: systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetologia. 2012;55(11): 2895–2905.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Must A, Tybor DJ. Physical activity and sedentary behavior: a review of longitudinal studies of weight and adiposity in youth. Int J Obes. 2005;29:S84–S96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iannotti RJ, Wang J. Patterns of physical activity, sedentary behavior, and diet in US adolescents. J Adolesc Health. 2013;53(2): 280–286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mangerud WL, Bjerkeset O, Lydersen S, Indredavik MS. Physical activity in adolescents with psychiatric disorders and in the general population. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2014;8(1):2.
   Google Scholar
• Garaulet M, Ortega FB, Ruiz JR, et al. Short sleep duration is associated with increased obesity markers in European adolescents: effect of physical activity and dietary habits. The HELENA study. Int J Obes. 2011;35(10):1308–1317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stone MR, Stevens D, Faulkner GE. Maintaining recommended sleep throughout the week is associated with increased physical activity in children. Prev Med. 2013;56(2):112–117.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowlands AV, Pilgrim EL, Eston RG. Patterns of habitual activity across weekdays and weekend days in 9–11-year-old children. Prev Med. 2008;46(4):317–324.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brand S, Gerber M, Beck J, Hatzinger M, Puhse U, Holsboer-Trachsler E. High exercise levels are related to favorable sleep patterns and psychological functioning in adolescents: a comparison of athletes and controls. J Adolesc Health. 2010;46(2):133–141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kauderer S, Randler C. Differences in time use among chronotypes in adolescents. Biol Rhythm Res. 2013;44(4):601–608.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaal S, Peter M, Randler C. Morningness–eveningness and physical activity in adolescents. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2010;8(2): 147–159.
   Google Scholar
• Olds TS, Maher CA, Matricciani L. Sleep duration or bedtime? Exploring the relationship between sleep habits and weight status and activity patterns. Sleep. 2011;34(10):1299–1307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shechter A, St-Onge MP. Delayed sleep timing is associated with low levels of free-living physical activity in normal sleeping adults. Sleep Med Rev. 2014;15(12):1586–1589.
   Google Scholar
• Kunorozva L, Stephenson KJ, Rae DE, Roden LC. Chronotype and PERIOD3 variable number tandem repeat polymorphism in individual sports athletes. Chronobiol Int. 2012;29(8):1004–1010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wheaton AG, Perry GS, Chapman DP, Croft JB. Self-reported sleep duration and weight-control strategies among US high school students. Sleep. 2013;36(8):1139–1145.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cappuccio FP, Taggart FM, Kandala N-B, et al. Meta-analysis of short sleep duration and obesity in children and adults. Sleep. 2008;31(5):619–626.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beebe DW, Simon S, Summer S, Hemmer S, Strotman D, Dolan LM. Dietary intake following experimentally restricted sleep in adolescents. Sleep. 2013;36(6):827–834.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wing YK, Hui SH, Pak WM, et al. A controlled study of sleep related disordered breathing in obese children. Arch Dis Child. 2003;88.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carotenuto M, Bruni O, Santoro N, Del Giudice EM, Perrone L, Pascotto A. Waist circumference predicts the occurrence of sleep-disordered breathing in obese children and adolescents: a questionnaire-based study. Sleep Med Rev. 2006;7(4):357–361.
   Google Scholar
• Narang I, Mathew JL. Childhood obesity and obstructive sleep apnea. J Nutr Metab. 2012;2012:134202.
   Google Scholar
• Golley RK, Maher CA, Matricciani L, Olds TS. Sleep duration or bedtime? Exploring the association between sleep timing behaviour, diet and BMI in children and adolescents. Int J Obes. 2013;37(4):546–551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fleig D, Randler C. Association between chronotype and diet in adolescents based on food logs. Eat Behav. 2009;10(2):115–118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Culnan E, Kloss JD, Grandner M. A prospective study of weight gain associated with chronotype among college freshmen. Chronobiol Int. 2013;30(5):682–690.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron KG, Reid KJ, Kern AS, Zee PC. Role of sleep timing in caloric intake and BMI. Obesity. 2011;19(7):1374–1381.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kovac J, Husse J, Oster H. A time to fast, a time to feast: the crosstalk between metabolism and the circadian clock. Mol Cells. 2009;28(2):75–80.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorpy MJ, Korman E, Speilman AJ, Glovinsky PB. Delayed sleep phase syndrome in adolescents. J Adolesc Health Care. 1988;9:22–27.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Crowley SJ, Acebo C, Carskadon MA. Sleep, circadian rhythms, and delayed phase in adolescence. Sleep Med Rev. 2007;8(6):602–612.
   Google Scholar
• Uchiyama M, Okawa M, Shibui K, et al. Altered phase relation between sleep timing and core body temperature rhythm in delayed sleep phase syndrome and non-24-hour sleep–wake syndrome in humans. Neurosci Lett. 2000;294:101–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozaki S, Uchiyama M, Shirakawa S, Okawa M. Prolonged interval from body temperature nadir to sleep offset in patients with delayed sleep phase syndrome. Sleep. 1996;19(1):36–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saxvig IW, Wilhelmsen-Langeland A, Pallesen S, et al. Objective measures of sleep and dim light melatonin onset in adolescents and young adults with delayed sleep phase disorder compared to healthy controls. J Sleep Res. 2013;22(4):365–372.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shibui K, Uchiyama M, Okawa M. Melatonin rhythms in delayed sleep phase syndrome. J Biol Rhythms. 1999;14(1):72–76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang AM, Reid KJ, Gourineni R, Zee PC. Sleep timing and circadian phase in delayed sleep phase syndrome. J Biol Rhythms. 2009;24(4):313–321.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oren DA, Turner EH, Wehr TA. Abnormal circadian rhythms of plasma melatonin and body temperature in the delayed sleep phase syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1995;58:379–385.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamei Y, Hayakawa T, Urata J, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study of the effect of exogenous melatonin on delayed sleep phase syndrome. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2000;54:381–382.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagtegaal JE, Kerkhof GA, Smits MG, Swart ACW, Van Der Meer YG. Delayed sleep phase syndrome: a placebo-controlled cross-over study on the effects of melatonin administered five hours before the individual dim light melatonin onset. J Sleep Res. 1998;7:135–143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kayumov L, Brown G, Jindal R, Buttoo K, Shapiro CM. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study of the effect of exogenous melatonin on delayed sleep phase syndrome. Psychosom Med. 2001;63:40–48.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sivertsen B, Harvey AG, Lundervold AJ, Hysing M. Sleep problems and depression in adolescence: results from a large population-based study of Norwegian adolescents aged 16–18 years. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2014;23(8):681–689.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regestein QR, Monk TH. Delayed sleep phase syndrome: a review of its clinical aspects. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152(4):602–608.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benca RM, Obermeyer WH, Thisted RA, Gillin CJ. Sleep and psychiatric disorders: a meta-analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992;49:651–668.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chouinard S, Poulin J, Stip E, Qodbout R. Sleep in untreated patients with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull. 2004;30(4): 957–967.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pillai V, Kalmbach DA, Ciesla JA. A meta-analysis of electroencephalographic sleep in depression: evidence for genetic biomarkers. Biol Psychiatry. 2011;70(10):912–919.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cortese S, Faraone SV, Konofal E, Lecendreux M. Sleep in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: meta-analysis of subjective and objective studies. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009; 48(9):894–908.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glozier N, O’Dea B, McGorry PD, et al. Delayed sleep onset in depressed young people. BMC Psychiatry. 2014;14:33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robillard R, Naismith SL, Rogers NL, et al. Delayed sleep phase in young people with unipolar or bipolar affective disorders. J Affect Disord. 2013;145(2):260–263.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner J, Drummond LM, Mukhopadhyay S, et al. A prospective study of delayed sleep phase syndrome in patients with severe resistant obsessive–compulsive disorder. World Psychiatry. 2007;6:108–111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teicher MH, Glod CA, Magnus E, et al. Circadian rest–activity disturbances in seasonal affective disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997;54:124–130.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robillard R, Hermens DF, Naismith SL, et al. Ambulatory sleep–wake patterns and variability in young people with emerging mental disorders. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2015;40(1):28–37.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Heijden KB, Smits MG, Gunning WB. Sleep-related disorders in ADHD: a review. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2005;44:201–210.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imeraj L, Sonuga-Barke E, Antrop I, et al. Altered circadian profiles in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: an integrative review and theoretical framework for future studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2012;36(8):1897–1919.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papadimitriou GN, Linkowski P. Sleep disturbance in anxiety disorders. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2005;17(4):229–236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Mill JG, Hoogendijk WJ, Vogelzangs N, van Dyck R, Penninx BW. Insomnia and sleep duration in a large cohort of patients with major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010; 71(3):239–246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chase RM, Pincus DB. Sleep-related problems in children and adolescents with anxiety disorders. Behav Sleep Med. 2011;9(4): 224–236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslau N, Roth T, Rosenthal L, Andreski P. Sleep disturbance and psychiatric disorders: a longitudinal epidemiological study of young adults. Biol Psychiatry. 1996;39:411–418.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey AG, Talbot LS, Gershon A. Sleep disturbance in bipolar disorder across the lifespan. Clin Psychol. 2009;16(2):256–277.
   Google Scholar
• Wulff K, Dijk DJ, Middleton B, Foster RG, Joyce EM. Sleep and circadian rhythm disruption in schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry. 2012;200(4):308–316.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brower KJ, Aldrich MS, Hall JM. Sleep-disordered breathing in alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1999;23(1).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roehrs T, Roth T. Sleep, sleepiness, sleep disorders and alcohol use and abuse. Sleep Med Rev. 2001;5(4):287–297.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chellappa SL, Araújo JF. Excessive daytime sleepiness in patients with depressive disorder. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2006;28(2):126–129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslau N, Roth T, Rosenthal L, Andreski P. Daytime sleepiness: an epidemiological study of young adults. Am J Public Health. 1997;87:1649–1653.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas KR, Walters EE. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62:593–602.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler RC, Angermeyer M, Anthony JC, et al. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of mental disorders in the World Health Organization’s World Mental Health Survey Initiative. World Psychiatry. 2007;6:168–176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris M, Glozier N, Ratnavadivel R, Grunstein RR. Obstructive sleep apnea and depression. Sleep Med Rev. 2009;13(6):437–444.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yilmaz E, Sedky K, Bennett DS. The relationship between depressive symptoms and obstructive sleep apnea in pediatric populations: a meta-analysis. J Clin Sleep Med. 2013;9(11):1213–1220.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peppard PE, Szklo-Coxe M, Hla KM, Young T. Longitudinal association of sleep-related breathing disorder and depression. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:1709–1715.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ankers D, Jones SH. Objective assessment of circadian activity and sleep patterns in individuals at behavioural risk of hypomania. J Clin Psychol. 2009;65(10):1071–1086.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson A, Cavanagh J, Scott J. A systematic review of manic and depressive prodromes. J Affect Disord. 2003;74(3):209–217.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yung AR, McGorry PD. The initial prodrome in psychosis: descriptive and qualitative aspects. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 1996;30:587–599.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naismith SL, Hermens DF, Ip TK, et al. Circadian profiles in young people during the early stages of affective disorder. Transl Psychiatry. 2012;2:e123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott EM, Robillard R, Hermens DF, et al. Dysregulated sleep–wake cycles in young people are associated with emerging stages of major mental disorders. Early Interv Psychiatry. 2014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glod CA, Teicher MH, Polcari A, McGreenery CE, Ito Y. Circadian rest–activity disturbances in children with seasonal affective disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(2):188–195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teicher MH, Glod CA, Harper D, et al. Locomotor activity in depressed children and adolescents: I. Circadian dysregulation. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993;32(4):760–769.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones SH, Hare DJ, Evershed K. Actigraphic assessment of circadian activity and sleep patterns in bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 2005;7:176–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gruber R, Sadeh A, Raviv A. Instability of sleep patterns in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39(4):495–501.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biggs SN, Lushington K, van den Heuvel CJ, Martin AJ, Kennedy JD. Inconsistent sleep schedules and daytime behavioral difficulties in school-aged children. Sleep Med Rev. 2011;12(8):780–786.
   Google Scholar
• Ong SH, Wickramaratne P, Tang M, Weissman MM. Early childhood sleep and eating problems as predictors of adolescent and adult mood and anxiety disorders. J Affect Disord. 2006;96(1–2): 1–8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray G. Diurnal mood variation in depression: a signal of disturbed circadian function? J Affect Disord. 2007;102(1–3):47–53.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peeters F, Berkhof J, Delespaul P, Rottenberg J, Nicolson NA. Diurnal mood variation in major depressive disorder. Emotion. 2006;6(3):383–391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wirz-Justice A. Diurnal variation of depressive symptoms. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2008;10(3):337–343.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schiefelbein VL, Susman EJ. Cortisol levels and longitudinal cortisol change as predictors of anxiety in adolescents. J Early Adolesc. 2006;26(4):397–413.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker EF, Walder DJ, Reynolds F. Developmental changes in cortisol secretion in normal and at-risk youth. Dev Psychopathol. 2001;13:721–732.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adam EK, Doane LD, Zinbarg RE, Mineka S, Craske MG, Griffith JW. Prospective prediction of major depressive disorder from cortisol awakening responses in adolescence. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2010;35(6):921–931.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodyer IM, Herbert J, Altham PM, Pearson J, Secher SM, Shiers HM. Adrenal secretion during major depression in 8- to 16-year-olds, I. Altered diurnal rhythms in salivary cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) at presentation. Psychol Med. 1996;26:245–256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahl RE, Ryan ND, Puig-Antich J, et al. 24-Hour cortisol measures in adolescents with major depression: a controlled study. Biol Psychiatry. 1991;30:25–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cervantes P, Gelber S, Kin FN, Nair VNP, Schwartz G. Circadian secretion of cortisol in bipolar disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2001;26(5):411–416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nair NVP, Hariharasubraman N, Pilapil C. Circadian rhythm of plasma melatonin in endogenous depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 1984;8:715–718.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Claustrat B, Chazot G, Bran J, Jordan D, Sassolas G. A chronobiological study of melatonin and cortisol secretion in depressed subjects: plasma melatonin, a biochemical marker in major depression. Biol Psychiatry. 1984;19(8):1215–1228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy SH, Kutcher SP, Ralevski E, Brown GM. Nocturnal melatonin and 24-hour 6-sulphatoxymelatonin levels in various phases of bipolar affective disorder. Psychiatry Res. 1996;63:219–222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robillard R, Naismith SL, Rogers NL, et al. Sleep–wake cycle and melatonin rhythms in adolescents and young adults with mood disorders: comparison of unipolar and bipolar phenotypes. Eur Psychiatry. 2013;28(7):412–416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monteleone P, Catapano F, Del Buono G, Maj M. Circadian rhythms of melatonin, cortisol and prolactin in patients with obsessive–compulsive disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1994;89:411–415.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson S, Rosca P, Durst R, et al. Serum melatonin levels in schizophrenic and schizoaffective hospitalized patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1991;84:221–224.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monteleone P, Maj M, Fusco M, Kemali D, Reiter RJ. Depressed nocturnal plasma melatonin levels in drug-free paranoid schizophrenics. Schizophr Res. 1992;7:77–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao ML, Gross G, Strebel B, et al. Circadian rhythm of tryptophan, serotonin, melatonin, and pituitary hormones in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry. 1994;35:151–163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh SP, Singh V, Kar N. Efficacy of agomelatine in major depressive disorder: meta-analysis and appraisal. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2012;15(3):417–428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hickie IB, Naismith SL, Robillard R, Scott EM, Hermens DF. Manipulating the sleep–wake cycle and circadian rhythms to improve clinical management of major depression. BMC Med. 2013;11:79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hickie IB, Rogers NL. Novel melatonin-based therapies: potential advances in the treatment of major depression. Lancet. 2011; 378(9791):621–631.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu X, Breen G, Chen CK, Huang YS, Wu YY, Asherson P. Association study between a polymorphism at the 3′-untranslated region of CLOCK gene and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Behav Brain Funct. 2010;6:48.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kishi T, Fukuo Y, Kitajima T, et al. SIRT1 gene, schizophrenia and bipolar disorder in the Japanese population: an association study. Genes Brain Behav. 2011;10(3):257–263.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang MC, Ho CW, Chen CH, Liu SC, Chen CC, Leu SJ. Reduced expression of circadian clock genes in male alcoholic patients. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2010;34(11):1899–1904.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCarthy MJ, Nievergelt CM, Kelsoe JR, Welsh DK. A survey of genomic studies supports association of circadian clock genes with bipolar disorder spectrum illnesses and lithium response. PLoS One. 2012;7(2):e32091.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kripke DF, Nievergelt CM, Joo E, Shekhtman T, Kelsoe JR. Circadian polymorphisms associated with affective disorders. J Circadian Rhythms. 2009;7:2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Soria V, Martinez-Amoros E, Escaramis G, et al. Differential association of circadian genes with mood disorders: CRY1 and NPAS2 are associated with unipolar major depression and CLOCK and VIP with bipolar disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010;35(6): 1279–1289.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mansour HA, Wood J, Logue T, et al. Association study of eight circadian genes with bipolar I disorder, schizoaffective disorder and schizophrenia. Genes Brain Behav. 2006;5(2):150–157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGrath CL, Glatt SJ, Sklar P, et al. Evidence for genetic association of RORB with bipolar disorder. BMC Psychiatry. 2009;9:70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park HJ, Park JK, Kim SK, et al. Association of polymorphism in the promoter of the melatonin receptor 1A gene with schizophrenia and with insomnia symptoms in schizophrenia patients. J Mol Neurosci. 2011;45(2):304–308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mongrain V, Cermakian N. Clock genes in health and diseases. J Appl Biomed. 2009;7:15–33.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar