Engineered Extracellular Vesicles in Chronic Kidney Diseases: A Comprehensive Review

References

• Glassock RJ, Warnock DG, Delanaye P. The global burden of chronic kidney disease: estimates, variability and pitfalls. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2017;13(2):104–114. doi:10.1038/nrneph.2016.163
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Boer IH, Khunti K, Sadusky T, et al. Diabetes management in chronic kidney disease: a consensus report by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and Kidney Disease: improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO). Kidney Int. 2022;102(5):974–989. doi:10.1016/j.kint.2022.08.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin P, Awan AA, Berenguer MC, et al. Executive Summary of the KDIGO 2022 clinical practice guideline for the prevention, diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of hepatitis c in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2022;102(6):1228–1237. doi:10.1016/j.kint.2022.07.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noels H, Jankowski J. Increased risk of cardiovascular complications in chronic kidney disease: introduction to a compendium. Circ Res. 2023;132(8):899–901. doi:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.123.322806
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou S, Cheing GLY, Cheung AKK. Role of exosomes and exosomal microRNA in muscle-Kidney crosstalk in chronic kidney disease. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2022;10:10 951837. doi:10.3389/fcell.2022.951837
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li Q, Zhang C, Shi J, et al. High-Phosphate-stimulated macrophage-derived exosomes promote vascular calcification via let-7b-5p/TGFBR1 axis in chronic kidney disease. Cells. 2022;12(1):161. doi:10.3390/cells12010161
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gudehithlu KP, Hart P, Joshi A, et al. Urine exosomal ceruloplasmin: a potential early biomarker of underlying kidney disease. Clin Exp Nephrol. 2019;23(8):1013–1021. doi:10.1007/s10157-019-01734-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang TT, Wang B, Li ZL, et al. Kim-1 targeted extracellular vesicles: a new therapeutic platform for RNAi to Treat AKI. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2021;32(10):2467–2483. doi:10.1681/ASN.2020111561
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon YM, Lee JH, Song KH, Noh H, Lee SH. Melatonin-stimulated exosomes enhance the regenerative potential of chronic kidney disease-derived mesenchymal stem/stromal cells via cellular prion proteins. J Pineal Res. 2020;68(3):e12632. doi:10.1111/jpi.12632
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ceccotti E, Saccu G, Herrera Sanchez MB, Bruno S. Naive or engineered extracellular vesicles from different cell sources: therapeutic tools for kidney diseases. Pharmaceutics. 2023;15(6):1715. doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics15061715
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grange C, Skovronova R, Marabese F, Bussolati B. Stem Cell-derived extracellular vesicles and kidney regeneration. Cells. 2019;8(10):1240. doi:10.3390/cells8101240
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang B, Lin Y, Huang Y, Zhu N, Shen YQ. Extracellular vesicles modulate key signalling pathways in refractory wound healing. Burns Trauma. 2023;11:11 tkad039. doi:10.1093/burnst/tkad039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalluri R, LeBleu VS. The biology, function, and biomedical applications of exosomes. Science. 2020;367(6478). doi:10.1126/science.aau6977
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madkhali AM, Mobarki AA, Ghzwani AH, et al. Elevated levels of procoagulant microvesicles and tissue-factor bearing microvesicles in malaria patients. Int J Gen Med. 2023;16:1205–1215. doi:10.2147/IJGM.S402212
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang J, Zhang X, Wang G, et al. ApoSEVs-mediated modulation of versatile target cells promotes diabetic wound healing: unveiling a promising strategy. Int J Nanomed. 2023;18:6955–6977. doi:10.2147/IJN.S436350
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu Z, Chen G, Zhao Y, et al. Exosome-derived circCCAR1 promotes CD8 + T-cell dysfunction and anti-PD1 resistance in hepatocellular carcinoma. Mol Cancer. 2023;22(1):55. doi:10.1186/s12943-023-01759-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu Y, Tao R, Chen L, et al. Exosomes derived from pioglitazone-pretreated MSCs accelerate diabetic wound healing through enhancing angiogenesis. J Nanobiotechnol. 2021;19(1):150. doi:10.1186/s12951-021-00894-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao M, Liu S, Wang C, et al. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles attenuate mitochondrial damage and inflammation by stabilizing mitochondrial DNA. ACS Nano. 2021;15(1):1519–1538. doi:10.1021/acsnano.0c08947
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou M, Li YJ, Tang YC, et al. Apoptotic bodies for advanced drug delivery and therapy. J Control Release. 2022;351:394–406.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu H, Liu S, Qiu X, et al. Donor MSCs release apoptotic bodies to improve myocardial infarction via autophagy regulation in recipient cells. Autophagy. 2020;16(12):2140–2155. doi:10.1080/15548627.2020.1717128
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liao Y, Zhang Z, Ouyang L, Mi B, Liu G. Engineered extracellular vesicles in wound healing: design, paradigms, and clinical application. Small. 2023;20(7):e2307058. doi:10.1002/smll.202307058
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhang Y, Tang Y, Du S, Li P, Du S, Li P. Exosome: a review of its classification, isolation techniques, storage, diagnostic and targeted therapy applications. Int J Nanomed. 2020;15:6917–6934. doi:10.2147/IJN.S264498
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buzas EI. The roles of extracellular vesicles in the immune system. Nat Rev Immunol. 2023;23(4):236–250. doi:10.1038/s41577-022-00763-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mi B, Chen L, Xiong Y, et al. Saliva exosomes-derived UBE2O mRNA promotes angiogenesis in cutaneous wounds by targeting SMAD6. J Nanobiotechnol. 2020;18(1):68. doi:10.1186/s12951-020-00624-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferreira JV, da Rosa Soares A, Ramalho J, et al. LAMP2A regulates the loading of proteins into exosomes. Sci Adv. 2022;8(12):eabm1140. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abm1140
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen C, Zheng H, Luo Y, et al. SUMOylation promotes extracellular vesicle-mediated transmission of lncRNA ELNAT1 and lymph node metastasis in bladder cancer. J Clin Invest. 2021;131(8). doi:10.1172/JCI146431
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin Z, Xiong Y, Zeng R, et al. Circulating MiRNA-21-enriched extracellular vesicles promote bone remodeling in traumatic brain injury patients. Exp Mol Med. 2023;55(3):587–596. doi:10.1038/s12276-023-00956-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Segel M, Lash B, Song J, et al. Mammalian retrovirus-like protein PEG10 packages its own mRNA and can be pseudotyped for mRNA delivery. Science. 2021;373(6557):882–889. doi:10.1126/science.abg6155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bitto NJ, Cheng L, Johnston EL, et al. Staphylococcus aureus membrane vesicles contain immunostimulatory DNA, RNA and peptidoglycan that activate innate immune receptors and induce autophagy. J Extracell Vesicles. 2021;10(6):e12080. doi:10.1002/jev2.12080
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu Y, Chen M, Guo Q, et al. Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell exosome-derived miR-874-3p targeting RIPK1/PGAM5 attenuates kidney tubular epithelial cell damage. Cell Mol Biol Lett. 2023;28(1):12. doi:10.1186/s11658-023-00425-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ding H, Li LX, Harris PC, Yang J, Li X. Extracellular vesicles and exosomes generated from cystic renal epithelial cells promote cyst growth in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):4548. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-24799-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang H, Wang B, Zhang A, et al. Exosome-mediated miR-29 transfer reduces muscle atrophy and kidney fibrosis in mice. Mol Ther. 2019;27(3):571–583. doi:10.1016/j.ymthe.2019.01.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Fekih R, Hurley J, Tadigotla V, et al. Discovery and validation of a urinary exosome mRNA signature for the diagnosis of human kidney transplant rejection. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2021;32(4):994–1004. doi:10.1681/ASN.2020060850
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdbrugger U, Blijdorp CJ, Bijnsdorp IV, et al. Urinary extracellular vesicles: a position paper by the urine task force of the international society for extracellular vesicles. J Extracell Vesicles. 2021;10(7):e12093. doi:10.1002/jev2.12093
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen S, Zhang X, Meng K, et al. Urinary exosome tsRNAs as novel markers for diagnosis and prediction of lupus nephritis. Front Immunol. 2023;14:1077645. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1077645
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu Y, Guo Y, Bao S, Huang H, Liu W, Guo W. Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomal microRNA-381-3p alleviates vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease by targeting NFAT5. Cell Death Dis. 2022;13(3):278. doi:10.1038/s41419-022-04703-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Behrens F, Holle J, Kuebler WM, Simmons S. Extracellular vesicles as regulators of kidney function and disease. Intensive Care Med Exp. 2020;8(Suppl 1):22. doi:10.1186/s40635-020-00306-2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhou X, Zhao S, Li W, et al. Tubular cell-derived exosomal miR-150-5p contributes to renal fibrosis following unilateral ischemia-reperfusion injury by activating fibroblast in vitro and in vivo. Int J Biol Sci. 2021;17(14):4021–4033. doi:10.7150/ijbs.62478
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang W, Zheng X, Yu Y, et al. Renal cell carcinoma-derived exosomes deliver lncARSR to induce macrophage polarization and promote tumor progression via STAT3 pathway. Int J Biol Sci. 2022;18(8):3209–3222. doi:10.7150/ijbs.70289
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang B, Zhang A, Wang H, et al. miR-26a limits muscle wasting and cardiac fibrosis through exosome-mediated microRNA transfer in chronic kidney disease. Theranostics. 2019;9(7):1864–1877. doi:10.7150/thno.29579
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou X, Zhang W, Yao Q, et al. Exosome production and its regulation of EGFR during wound healing in renal tubular cells. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2017;312(6):F963–F70. doi:10.1152/ajprenal.00078.2017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lv LL, Feng Y, Wu WJ, et al. Exosomal CCL2 from tubular epithelial cells is critical for albumin-induced tubulointerstitial inflammation. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2018;29(3):919–935. doi:10.1681/ASN.2017050523
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jalal D, Sanford B, Ten Eyck P. Detection of pro angiogenic and inflammatory biomarkers in patients with CKD. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):8786. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-87710-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen S, Zhang M, Li J, et al. beta-catenin-controlled tubular cell-derived exosomes play a key role in fibroblast activation via the OPN-CD44 axis. J Extracell Vesicles. 2022;11(3):e12203. doi:10.1002/jev2.12203
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin X, Shan SK, Xu F, et al. The crosstalk between endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells aggravates high phosphorus-induced arterial calcification. Cell Death Dis. 2022;13(7):650. doi:10.1038/s41419-022-05064-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zietzer A, Steffen E, Niepmann S, et al. MicroRNA-mediated vascular intercellular communication is altered in chronic kidney disease. Cardiovasc Res. 2022;118(1):316–333. doi:10.1093/cvr/cvaa322
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jankowski J, Floege J, Fliser D, Bohm M, Marx N. Cardiovascular disease in chronic kidney disease: pathophysiological insights and therapeutic options. Circulation. 2021;143(11):1157–1172. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.050686
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao H, Cheng Y, Gao H, et al. In vivo tracking of mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles improving mitochondrial function in renal ischemia-reperfusion injury. ACS Nano. 2020;14(4):4014–4026. doi:10.1021/acsnano.9b08207
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wen J, Ma Z, Livingston MJ, et al. Decreased secretion and profibrotic activity of tubular exosomes in diabetic kidney disease. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2020;319(4):F664–F73. doi:10.1152/ajprenal.00292.2020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li ZL, Lv LL, Tang TT, et al. HIF-1alpha inducing exosomal microRNA-23a expression mediates the cross-talk between tubular epithelial cells and macrophages in tubulointerstitial inflammation. Kidney Int. 2019;95(2):388–404. doi:10.1016/j.kint.2018.09.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lv LL, Feng Y, Wu M, et al. Exosomal miRNA-19b-3p of tubular epithelial cells promotes M1 macrophage activation in kidney injury. Cell Death Differ. 2020;27(1):210–226. doi:10.1038/s41418-019-0349-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang L, Li S, Cong M, et al. Lemon-derived extracellular vesicle-like nanoparticles block the progression of kidney stones by antagonizing endoplasmic reticulum stress in renal tubular cells. Nano Lett. 2023;23(4):1555–1563. doi:10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c05099
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han L, Wang S, Li J, Zhao L, Zhou H. Urinary exosomes from patients with diabetic kidney disease induced podocyte apoptosis via microRNA-145-5p/Srgap2 and the RhoA/ROCK pathway. Exp Mol Pathol. 2023;134 104877. doi:10.1016/j.yexmp.2023.104877
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burrello J, Monticone S, Burrello A, et al. Identification of a serum and urine extracellular vesicle signature predicting renal outcome after kidney transplant. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2023;38(3):764–777. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfac259
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haney NM, Kim CJ, Kuczler MD, et al. Novel urinary tract obstruction marker discovery by multi-marker profiling of urinary extracellular vesicles derived from a rat UTO model. Am J Clin Exp Urol. 2023;11(2):136–145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tao Y, Wei X, Yue Y, et al. Extracellular vesicle-derived AEBP1 mRNA as a novel candidate biomarker for diabetic kidney disease. J Transl Med. 2021;19(1):326. doi:10.1186/s12967-021-03000-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saejong S, Townamchai N, Somparn P, et al. MicroRNA-21 in plasma exosome, but not from whole plasma, as a biomarker for the severe interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy (IF/TA) in post-renal transplantation. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol. 2022;40(1):94–102. doi:10.12932/AP-101019-0656
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim HY, Kwon S, Um W, et al. Functional extracellular vesicles for regenerative medicine. Small. 2022;18(36):e2106569. doi:10.1002/smll.202106569
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuan X, Li L, Liu H, et al. Strategies for improving adipose-derived stem cells for tissue regeneration. Burns Trauma. 2022;10:10 tkac028. doi:10.1093/burnst/tkac028
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin Y, Yan M, Bai Z, et al. Huc-MSC-derived exosomes modified with the targeting peptide of aHSCs for liver fibrosis therapy. J Nanobiotechnol. 2022;20(1):432. doi:10.1186/s12951-022-01636-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xiong Y, Chen L, Liu P, et al. All-in-one: multifunctional hydrogel accelerates oxidative diabetic wound healing through timed-release of exosome and fibroblast growth factor. Small. 2022;18(1):e2104229. doi:10.1002/smll.202104229
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aslan C, Zolbanin NM, Faraji F, Jafari R. Exosomes for CRISPR-Cas9 delivery: the cutting edge in genome editing. Mol Biotechnol. 2023;1:2.
   Google Scholar
• Ilahibaks NF, Kluiver TA, de Jong OG, et al. Extracellular vesicle-mediated delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 ribonucleoprotein complex targeting proprotein convertase subtilisin-kexin type 9 (Pcsk9) in primary mouse hepatocytes. J Extracell Vesicles. 2024;13(1):e12389. doi:10.1002/jev2.12389
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osteikoetxea X, Silva A, Lazaro-Ibanez E, et al. Engineered Cas9 extracellular vesicles as a novel gene editing tool. J Extracell Vesicles. 2022;11(5):e12225. doi:10.1002/jev2.12225
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salunkhe S, Chitkara D, Mittal A, Chitkara D, Mittal A. Surface functionalization of exosomes for target-specific delivery and in vivo imaging & tracking: strategies and significance. J Control Release. 2020;326:326 599–614. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2020.07.042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu S, Lv K, Wang Y, et al. Improving the circulation time and renal therapeutic potency of extracellular vesicles using an endogenous ligand binding strategy. J Control Release. 2022;352:1009–1023. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.11.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen C, Sun M, Liu X, et al. General and mild modification of food-derived extracellular vesicles for enhanced cell targeting. Nanoscale. 2021;13(5):3061–3069. doi:10.1039/D0NR06309F
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deng D, Li X, Zhang JJ, et al. Biotin-avidin system-based delivery enhances the therapeutic performance of MSC-derived exosomes. ACS Nano. 2023;17(9):8530–8550. doi:10.1021/acsnano.3c00839
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao L, Qiu F, Cao H, et al. Therapeutic delivery of microRNA-125a-5p oligonucleotides improves recovery from myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury in mice and swine. Theranostics. 2023;13(2):685–703. doi:10.7150/thno.73568
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi HY, Kim TY, Lee M, et al. Kidney mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles engineered to express erythropoietin improve renal anemia in mice with chronic kidney disease. Stem Cell Rev Rep. 2022;18(3):980–992. doi:10.1007/s12015-021-10141-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim S, Lee SA, Yoon H, et al. Exosome-based delivery of super-repressor IkappaBalpha ameliorates kidney ischemia-reperfusion injury. Kidney Int. 2021;100(3):570–584. doi:10.1016/j.kint.2021.04.039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rong Y, Wang Z, Tang P, et al. Engineered extracellular vesicles for delivery of siRNA promoting targeted repair of traumatic spinal cord injury. Bioact Mater. 2023;23:328–342. doi:10.1016/j.bioactmat.2022.11.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuan J, Yang H, Liu C, et al. Microneedle patch loaded with exosomes containing MicroRNA-29b prevents cardiac fibrosis after myocardial infarction. Adv Healthc Mater. 2023;12(13):e2202959. doi:10.1002/adhm.202202959
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai JJ, Chau ZL, Chen SY, et al. Exosome processing and characterization approaches for research and technology development. Adv Sci. 2022;9(15):e2103222. doi:10.1002/advs.202103222
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xiong Y, Lin Z, Bu P, et al. A whole-course-repair system based on neurogenesis-angiogenesis crosstalk and macrophage reprogramming promotes diabetic wound healing. Adv Mater. 2023;35(19):e2212300. doi:10.1002/adma.202212300
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng H, Ji J, Zhao T, Wang E, Zhang A. Exosome‑encapsulated miR‑26a attenuates aldosterone‑induced tubulointerstitial fibrosis by inhibiting the CTGF/SMAD3 signaling pathway. Int J Mol Med. 2023;51:2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang M, Zhang D, He W, Jin J. Exosomes from miR-374a-5p-modified mesenchymal stem cells inhibit the progression of renal fibrosis by regulating MAPK6/MK5/YAP axis. Bioengineered. 2022;13(2):4517–4527. doi:10.1080/21655979.2022.2033465
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang TT, Wang B, Wu M, et al. Extracellular vesicle-encapsulated IL-10 as novel nanotherapeutics against ischemic AKI. Sci Adv. 2020;6(33):eaaz0748. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaz0748
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ko KW, Park SY, Lee EH, Yoo YI, Kim DS. Integrated bioactive scaffold with polydeoxyribonucleotide and stem-cell-derived extracellular vesicles for kidney regeneration. ACS Nano. 2021;15(4):7575–7585. doi:10.1021/acsnano.1c01098
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi J, Duan J, Gong H, Pang Y, Wang L, Yan Y. Exosomes from miR-20b-3p-overexpressing stromal cells ameliorate calcium oxalate deposition in rat kidney. J Cell Mol Med. 2019;23(11):7268–7278. doi:10.1111/jcmm.14555
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jia Y, Zheng Z, Xue M, et al. Extracellular vesicles from albumin-induced tubular epithelial cells promote the M1 macrophage phenotype by targeting klotho. Mol Ther. 2019;27(8):1452–1466. doi:10.1016/j.ymthe.2019.05.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo J, Liu X, Song H, Gu Y, Niu J, Yang L. MHC-1B carried exosomes derived from tubular epithelial cell induced by the EGFR mimotope inhibit macrophage activation in renal fibrosis. Extracel Vesicle. 2023;2:100024. doi:10.1016/j.vesic.2023.100024
   Google Scholar
• Song T, Eirin A, Zhu X, et al. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles induce regulatory T cells to ameliorate chronic kidney injury. Hypertension. 2020;75(5):1223–1232. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.119.14546
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li Y, Chakraborty A, Broughton BRS, et al. Comparing the renoprotective effects of BM-MSCs versus BM-MSC-exosomes, when combined with an anti-fibrotic drug, in hypertensive mice. Biomed Pharmacother;2021. 144 112256. doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112256
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tapparo M, Bruno S, Collino F, et al. Renal regenerative potential of extracellular vesicles derived from miRNA-Engineered mesenchymal stromal cells. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20:10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang B, Yao K, Huuskes BM, et al. Mesenchymal stem cells deliver exogenous MicroRNA-let7c via exosomes to attenuate renal fibrosis. Mol Ther. 2016;24(7):1290–1301. doi:10.1038/mt.2016.90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jin J, Qian F, Zheng D, He W, Gong J, He Q. Mesenchymal stem cells attenuate renal fibrosis via exosomes-mediated delivery of microRNA Let-7i-5p antagomir. Int J Nanomed. 2021;16:3565–3578. doi:10.2147/IJN.S299969
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu X, Liu Z, Wang C, et al. Kidney tubular epithelial cells control interstitial fibroblast fate by releasing TNFAIP8-encapsulated exosomes. Cell Death Dis. 2023;14(10):672. doi:10.1038/s41419-023-06209-w
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen XJ, Jiang K, Ferguson CM, et al. Augmented efficacy of exogenous extracellular vesicles targeted to injured kidneys. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2020;5(1):199. doi:10.1038/s41392-020-00304-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ji C, Zhang J, Shi L, et al. Engineered extracellular vesicle-encapsulated CHIP as novel nanotherapeutics for treatment of renal fibrosis. NPJ Regen Med. 2024;9(1):3. doi:10.1038/s41536-024-00348-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jin C, Wu P, Li L, Xu W, Qian H. Exosomes: emerging therapy delivery tools and biomarkers for kidney diseases. Stem Cells Int. 2021;2021:7844455. doi:10.1155/2021/7844455
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng YQ, Yue YX, Cao HM, et al. Coassembly of hypoxia-sensitive macrocyclic amphiphiles and extracellular vesicles for targeted kidney injury imaging and therapy. J Nanobiotechnol. 2021;19(1):451. doi:10.1186/s12951-021-01192-w
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yan J, Xiao H, Zhou X, et al. Engineered exosomes reprogram Gli1(+) cells in vivo to prevent calcification of vascular grafts and autologous pathological vessels. Sci Adv. 2023;9(29):eadf7858. doi:10.1126/sciadv.adf7858
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yea JH, Yoon YM, Lee JH, Yun CW, Lee SH. Exosomes isolated from melatonin-stimulated mesenchymal stem cells improve kidney function by regulating inflammation and fibrosis in a chronic kidney disease mouse model. J Tissue Eng. 2021;12:12 20417314211059624. doi:10.1177/20417314211059624
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen L, Wang Y, Li S, et al. Exosomes derived from GDNF-modified human adipose mesenchymal stem cells ameliorate peritubular capillary loss in tubulointerstitial fibrosis by activating the SIRT1/eNOS signaling pathway. Theranostics. 2020;10(20):9425–9442. doi:10.7150/thno.43315
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang W, Zhu XY, Lerman A, Lerman LO. Extracellular vesicles as theranostic tools in kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2022;17(9):1418–1429. doi:10.2215/CJN.16751221
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kishi S, Matsumoto T, Brooks CR, Brooks CR. Human reconstructed kidney models. Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim. 2021;57(2):133–147. doi:10.1007/s11626-021-00548-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tian Y, Gong M, Hu Y, et al. Quality and efficiency assessment of six extracellular vesicle isolation methods by nano-flow cytometry. J Extracell Vesicles. 2020;9(1):1697028. doi:10.1080/20013078.2019.1697028
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeppesen DK, Zhang Q, Franklin JL, Coffey RJ. Extracellular vesicles and nanoparticles: emerging complexities. Trends Cell Biol. 2023;33(8):667–681. doi:10.1016/j.tcb.2023.01.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verweij FJ, Balaj L, Boulanger CM, et al. The power of imaging to understand extracellular vesicle biology in vivo. Nat Methods. 2021;18(9):1013–1026. doi:10.1038/s41592-021-01206-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen J, Tan Q, Yang Z, Jin Y. Engineered extracellular vesicles: potentials in cancer combination therapy. J Nanobiotechnol. 2022;20(1):132. doi:10.1186/s12951-022-01330-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang J, Wu J, Wang G, et al. Extracellular vesicles: techniques and biomedical applications related to single vesicle analysis. ACS Nano. 2023;17(18):17668–17698. doi:10.1021/acsnano.3c03172
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitley JA, Cai H. Engineering extracellular vesicles to deliver CRISPR ribonucleoprotein for gene editing. J Extracell Vesicles. 2023;12(9):e12343. doi:10.1002/jev2.12343
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar